Dimensional constraints for three-dimensional batteries

ABSTRACT

A secondary battery is provided for cycling between a charged and a discharged state, the secondary battery including a battery enclosure, an electrode assembly, carrier ions, a non-aqueous liquid electrolyte within the battery enclosure, and a set of electrode constraints. The set of electrode constraints includes a primary constraint system having first and second primary growth constraints and at least one primary connecting member, the first and second primary growth constraints separated from each other in the longitudinal direction, wherein the primary constraint array restrains growth of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction over 20 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%. The set of electrode constraints further includes a secondary constraint system having first and second secondary growth constraints connected by at least one secondary connecting member, wherein the secondary constraint system at least partially restrains growth of the electrode assembly in a second direction upon cycling of the secondary battery.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.16/241,159 filed on Jan. 7, 2019, which is a continuation of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 15/899,338 filed on 6 Feb. 2018, which is acontinuation of International Application No. PCT/US2017/032355 filed 12May 2017, which claims the benefit of priority from U.S. PatentApplication No. 62/335,912 filed on 13 May 2016 and claims the benefitof priority from U.S. Patent Application No. 62/422,958 filed on 16 Nov.2016, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein in theirentireties.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This disclosure generally relates to structures for use in energystorage devices, to energy storage devices employing such structures,and to methods for producing such structures and energy devices.

BACKGROUND

Rocking chair or insertion secondary batteries are a type of energystorage device in which carrier ions, such as lithium, sodium,potassium, calcium or magnesium ions, move between a positive electrodeand a negative electrode through an electrolyte. The secondary batterymay comprise a single battery cell, or two or more battery cells thathave been electrically coupled to form the battery, with each batterycell comprising a positive electrode, a negative electrode, amicroporous separator, and an electrolyte.

In rocking chair battery cells, both the positive and negativeelectrodes comprise materials into which a carrier ion inserts andextracts. As a cell is discharged, carrier ions are extracted from thenegative electrode and inserted into the positive electrode. As a cellis charged, the reverse process occurs: the carrier ion is extractedfrom the positive and inserted into the negative electrode.

When the carrier ions move between electrodes, one of the persistentchallenges resides in the fact that the electrodes tend to expand andcontract as the battery is repeatedly charged and discharged. Theexpansion and contraction during cycling tends to be problematic forreliability and cycle life of the battery because when the electrodesexpand, electrical shorts and battery failures occur.

Therefore, there remains a need for controlling the expansion andcontraction of electrodes during battery cycling to improve reliabilityand cycle life of the battery.

SUMMARY

Briefly, therefore, one aspect of this disclosure relates to theimplementation of constraint structures to mitigate or prevent themacroscopic expansion of electrodes, thereby improving the energydensity, reliability, and cycle life of batteries.

According to one aspect, a secondary battery is provided for cyclingbetween a charged and a discharged state, the secondary battery having abattery enclosure, an electrode assembly, carrier ions, a non-aqueousliquid electrolyte within the battery enclosure, and a set of electrodeconstraints. The electrode assembly has mutually perpendicularlongitudinal, transverse, and vertical axes, a first longitudinal endsurface and a second longitudinal end surface separated from each otherin the longitudinal direction, and a lateral surface surrounding anelectrode assembly longitudinal axis A_(EA) and connecting the first andsecond longitudinal end surfaces, the lateral surface having opposingfirst and second regions on opposite sides of the longitudinal axis andseparated in a first direction that is orthogonal to the longitudinalaxis, the electrode assembly having a maximum width W_(EA) measured inthe longitudinal direction, a maximum length L_(EA) bounded by thelateral surface and measured in the transverse direction, and a maximumheight H_(EA) bounded by the lateral surface and measured in thevertical direction, the ratio of each of L_(EA) and W_(EA) to H_(EA)being at least 2:1, respectively. The electrode assembly has apopulation of electrode structures, a population of counter-electrodestructures, and an electrically insulating microporous separatormaterial electrically separating members of the electrode andcounter-electrode populations, members of the electrode andcounter-electrode structure populations being arranged in an alternatingsequence in the longitudinal direction. Each member of the population ofelectrode structures has a layer of an electrode active material andeach member of the population of counter-electrode structures comprisesa layer of a counter-electrode active material, wherein the electrodeactive material has the capacity to accept more than one mole of carrierion per mole of electrode active material when the secondary battery ischarged from a discharged state to a charged state. The set of electrodeconstraints includes a primary constraint system comprising first andsecond primary growth constraints and at least one primary connectingmember, the first and second primary growth constraints separated fromeach other in the longitudinal direction, and the at least one primaryconnecting member connecting the first and second primary growthconstraints, wherein the primary constraint system restrains growth ofthe electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction such that anyincrease in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 20 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 20%. The set of electrode constraints furtherincludes a secondary constraint system comprising first and secondsecondary growth constraints separated in a second direction andconnected by at least one secondary connecting member, wherein thesecondary constraint system at least partially restrains growth of theelectrode assembly in the second direction upon cycling of the secondarybattery, the second direction being orthogonal to the longitudinaldirection. The charged state is at least 75% of a rated capacity of thesecondary battery, and the discharged state is less than 25% of therated capacity of the secondary battery.

According to another aspect, a secondary battery for cycling between acharged and a discharged state is provided, the secondary battery havinga battery enclosure, an electrode assembly, carrier ions, a non-aqueousliquid electrolyte within the battery enclosure, and a set of electrodeconstraints. The electrode assembly has mutually perpendicularlongitudinal, transverse, and vertical axes, a first longitudinal endsurface and a second longitudinal end surface separated from each otherin the longitudinal direction, and a lateral surface surrounding anelectrode assembly longitudinal axis A_(EA) and connecting the first andsecond longitudinal end surfaces, the lateral surface having opposingfirst and second regions on opposite sides of the longitudinal axis andseparated in a first direction that is orthogonal to the longitudinalaxis, the electrode assembly having a maximum width W_(EA) measured inthe longitudinal direction, a maximum length L_(EA) bounded by thelateral surface and measured in the transverse direction, and a maximumheight H_(EA) bounded by the lateral surface and measured in thevertical direction, the ratio of each of L_(EA) and W_(EA) to H_(EA)being at least 2:1, respectively. The electrode assembly furtherincludes a population of electrode structures, a population ofcounter-electrode structures, and an electrically insulating microporousseparator material electrically separating members of the electrode andcounter-electrode populations, members of the electrode andcounter-electrode structure populations being arranged in an alternatingsequence in the longitudinal direction. Each member of the population ofelectrode structures has a layer of an electrode active material andeach member of the population of counter-electrode structures comprisesa layer of a counter-electrode active material, wherein the electrodeactive material has the capacity to accept more than one mole of carrierion per mole of electrode active material when the secondary battery ischarged from a discharged state to a charged state. The set of electrodeconstraints includes a primary constraint system comprising first andsecond primary growth constraints and at least one primary connectingmember, the first and second primary growth constraints separated fromeach other in the longitudinal direction, and the at least one primaryconnecting member connecting the first and second primary growthconstraints, wherein the primary constraint array restrains growth ofthe electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction such that anyincrease in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 20 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 20%. The charged state is at least 75% of a ratedcapacity of the secondary battery, and the discharged state is less than25% of the rated capacity of the secondary battery.

Other aspects, features and embodiments of the present disclosure willbe, in part, discussed and, in part, apparent in the followingdescription and drawing.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING

FIG. 1 is a perspective view of one embodiment of a constraint systememployed with an electrode assembly.

FIG. 2A is a schematic of one embodiment of a three-dimensionalelectrode assembly.

FIGS. 2B-2C are schematics of one embodiment of a three-dimensionalelectrode assembly, depicting anode structure population members inconstrained and expanded configurations.

FIGS. 3A-3H show exemplary embodiments of different shapes and sizes foran electrode assembly.

FIG. 4A illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, and furtherillustrates elements of the primary and secondary growth constraintsystems.

FIG. 4B illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line B-B′ as shown in FIG. 1, and furtherillustrates elements of the primary and secondary growth constraintsystems.

FIG. 4C illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line B-B′ as shown in FIG. 1, and furtherillustrates elements of the primary and secondary growth constraintsystems.

FIG. 5 illustrates a cross section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A1′ as shown in FIG. 1.

FIG. 6A illustrates one embodiment of a top view of a porous secondarygrowth constraint over an electrode assembly, and one embodiment foradhering the secondary growth constraint to the electrode assembly.

FIG. 6B illustrates one embodiment of a top view of a porous secondarygrowth constraint over an electrode assembly, and another embodiment foradhering the secondary growth constraint to the electrode assembly.

FIG. 6C illustrates one embodiment of a top view of a porous secondarygrowth constraint over an electrode assembly, and yet another embodimentfor adhering the secondary growth constraint to the electrode assembly.

FIG. 6D illustrates one embodiment of a top view of a porous secondarygrowth constraint over and electrode assembly, and still yet anotherembodiment for adhering the secondary growth constraint to the electrodeassembly.

FIG. 7 illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, further includinga set of electrode constraints, including one embodiment of a primaryconstraint system and one embodiment of a secondary constraint system.

FIGS. 8A-8B illustrate a force schematics, according to one embodiment,showing the forces exerted on the electrode assembly by the set ofelectrode constraints, as well as the forces being exerted by electrodestructures upon repeated cycling of a battery containing the electrodeassembly.

FIG. 9A illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, further includinga set of electrode constraints, including one embodiment of a primarygrowth constraint system and one embodiment of a secondary growthconstraint system where the counter-electrode backbones are used forassembling the set of electrode constraints.

FIG. 9B illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, further includinga set of electrode constraints, including another embodiment of aprimary growth constraint system and another embodiment of a secondarygrowth constraint system where the counter-electrode current collectorsare used for assembling the set of electrode constraints.

FIG. 9C illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, further includinga set of electrode constraints, including yet another embodiment of aprimary growth constraint system and yet another embodiment of asecondary growth constraint system where the counter-electrode currentcollectors are used for assembling the set of electrode constraints.

FIG. 10 illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, further includinga set of electrode constraints, including still yet another embodimentof a primary growth constraint system and still yet another embodimentof a secondary growth constraint system where the counter-electrodecurrent collectors are used for assembling the set of electrodeconstraints.

FIG. 11A illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, further includinga set of electrode constraints, including one embodiment of a primarygrowth constraint system and one embodiment of a secondary growthconstraint system where the counter-electrode backbones are used forassembling the set of electrode constraints via notches.

FIG. 11B illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, further includinga set of electrode constraints, including another embodiment of aprimary growth constraint system and another embodiment of a secondarygrowth constraint system where the counter-electrode backbones are usedfor assembling the set of electrode constraints via notches.

FIG. 11C illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, further includinga set of electrode constraints, including yet another embodiment of aprimary growth constraint system and yet another embodiment of asecondary growth constraint system where the counter-electrode backbonesare used for assembling the set of electrode constraints via notches.

FIG. 12A illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, further includinga set of electrode constraints, including one embodiment of a primarygrowth constraint system and one embodiment of a secondary growthconstraint system where the counter-electrode current collectors areused for assembling the set of electrode constraints via notches.

FIG. 12B illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, further includinga set of electrode constraints, including another embodiment of aprimary growth constraint system and another embodiment of a secondarygrowth constraint system where the counter-electrode current collectorsare used for assembling the set of electrode constraints via notches.

FIG. 12C illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, further includinga set of electrode constraints, including yet another embodiment of aprimary growth constraint system and yet another embodiment of asecondary growth constraint system where the counter-electrode currentcollectors are used for assembling the set of electrode constraints vianotches.

FIG. 13A illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, further includinga set of electrode constraints, including one embodiment of a primarygrowth constraint system and one embodiment of a secondary growthconstraint system where the counter-electrode backbones are used forassembling the set of electrode constraints via slots.

FIG. 13B illustrates a inset cross-section from FIG. 13A of anembodiment of the electrode assembly taken along the line A-A′ as shownin FIG. 1, further including a set of electrode constraints, includingone embodiment of a primary growth constraint system and one embodimentof a secondary growth constraint system where the counter-electrodebackbones are used for assembling the set of electrode constraints viaslots.

FIG. 13C illustrates a inset cross-section from FIG. 13A of anembodiment of the electrode assembly taken along the line A-A′ as shownin FIG. 1, further including a set of electrode constraints, includingone embodiment of a primary growth constraint system and one embodimentof a secondary growth constraint system where the counter-electrodebackbones are used for assembling the set of electrode constraints viaslots.

FIG. 14 illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, further includinga set of electrode constraints, including one embodiment of a primarygrowth constraint system and one embodiment of a secondary growthconstraint system where the counter-electrode current collectors areused for assembling the set of electrode constraints via slots.

FIG. 15A illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, further includinga set of electrode constraints, including one embodiment of a primarygrowth constraint system and one embodiment of a secondary growthconstraint system where the electrode backbones are used for assemblingthe set of electrode constraints.

FIG. 15B illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, further includinga set of electrode constraints, including one embodiment of a primarygrowth constraint system and one embodiment of a secondary growthconstraint system where the electrode current collectors are used forassembling the set of electrode constraints.

FIG. 16A illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, further includinga set of electrode constraints, including one embodiment of a primarygrowth constraint system and one embodiment of a secondary growthconstraint system where the electrode current collectors are used forassembling the set of electrode constraints via notches.

FIG. 16B illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, further includinga set of electrode constraints, including another embodiment of aprimary growth constraint system and another embodiment of a secondarygrowth constraint system where the electrode current collectors are usedfor assembling the set of electrode constraints via notches.

FIG. 16C illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, further includinga set of electrode constraints, including yet another embodiment of aprimary growth constraint system and yet another embodiment of asecondary growth constraint system where the electrode currentcollectors are used for assembling the set of electrode constraints vianotches.

FIG. 17 illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, further includinga set of electrode constraints, including one embodiment of a primarygrowth constraint system and one embodiment of a secondary growthconstraint system where the electrode current collectors are used forassembling the set of electrode constraints via slots.

FIG. 18A illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, further includinga set of electrode constraints, including one embodiment of a primarygrowth constraint system and one embodiment of a secondary growthconstraint system where the primary growth constraint system ishybridized with the secondary growth constraint system and used forassembling the set of electrode constraints.

FIG. 18B illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, further includinga set of electrode constraints, including another embodiment of aprimary growth constraint system and another embodiment of a secondarygrowth constraint system where the primary growth constraint system ishybridized with the secondary growth constraint system and used forassembling the set of electrode constraints.

FIG. 19 illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of the electrodeassembly taken along the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1, further includinga set of electrode constraints, including one embodiment of a primarygrowth constraint system and one embodiment of a secondary growthconstraint system where the primary growth constraint system is fusedwith the secondary growth constraint system and used for assembling theset of electrode constraints.

FIG. 20 illustrates an exploded view of an embodiment of an energystorage device or a secondary battery utilizing one embodiment of a setof growth constraints.

FIG. 21 illustrates an embodiment of a flowchart for the generalassembly of an energy storage device or a secondary battery utilizingone embodiment of a set of growth constraints.

Other aspects, embodiments and features of the inventive subject matterwill become apparent from the following detailed description whenconsidered in conjunction with the accompanying drawing. Theaccompanying figures are schematic and are not intended to be drawn toscale. For purposes of clarity, not every element or component islabeled in every figure, nor is every element or component of eachembodiment of the inventive subject matter shown where illustration isnot necessary to allow those of ordinary skill in the art to understandthe inventive subject matter.

Definitions

“A,” “an,” and “the” (i.e., singular forms) as used herein refer toplural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Forexample, in one instance, reference to “an electrode” includes both asingle electrode and a plurality of similar electrodes.

“About” and “approximately” as used herein refers to plus or minus 10%,5%, or 1% of the value stated. For example, in one instance, about 250μm would include 225 μm to 275 μm. By way of further example, in oneinstance, about 1,000 μm would include 900 μm to 1,100 μm. Unlessotherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities (e.g.,measurements, and the like) and so forth used in the specification andclaims are to be understood as being modified in all instances by theterm “about.” Accordingly, unless indicated to the contrary, thenumerical parameters set forth in the following specification andattached claims are approximations. Each numerical parameter should atleast be construed in light of the number of reported significant digitsand by applying ordinary rounding techniques.

“Charged state” as used herein in the context of the state of asecondary battery refers to a state where the secondary battery ischarged to at least 75% of its rated capacity. For example, the batterymay be charged to at least 80% of its rated capacity, at least 90% ofits rated capacity, and even at least 95% of its rated capacity, such as100% of its rated capacity.

“C-rate” as used herein refers to a measure of the rate at which asecondary battery is discharged, and is defined as the discharge currentdivided by the theoretical current draw under which the battery woulddeliver its nominal rated capacity in one hour. For example, a C-rate of1C indicates the discharge current that discharges the battery in onehour, a rate of 2C indicates the discharge current that discharges thebattery in ½ hours, a rate of C/2 indicates the discharge current thatdischarges the battery in 2 hours, etc.

“Discharged state” as used herein in the context of the state of asecondary battery refers to a state where the secondary battery isdischarged to less than 25% of its rated capacity. For example, thebattery may be discharged to less than 20% of its rated capacity, suchas less than 10% of its rated capacity, and even less than 5% of itsrated capacity, such as 0% of its rated capacity.

A “cycle” as used herein in the context of cycling of a secondarybattery between charged and discharged states refers to charging and/ordischarging a battery to move the battery in a cycle from a first statethat is either a charged or discharged state, to a second state that isthe opposite of the first state a charged state if the first state wasdischarged, or a discharged state if the first state was charged), andthen moving the battery back to the first state to complete the cycle.For example, a single cycle of the secondary battery between charged anddischarged states can include, as in a charge cycle, charging thebattery from a discharged state to a charged state, and then dischargingback to the discharged state, to complete the cycle. The single cyclecan also include, as in a discharge cycle, discharging the battery fromthe charged state to the discharged state, and then charging back to acharged state, to complete the cycle.

“Feret diameter” as referred to herein with respect to the electrodeassembly is defined as the distance between two parallel planesrestricting the electrode assembly measured in a direction perpendicularto the two planes. For example, a Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction is the distance as measured inthe longitudinal direction between two parallel planes restricting theelectrode assembly that are perpendicular to the longitudinal direction.As another example, a Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thetransverse direction is the distance as measured in the transversedirection between two parallel planes restricting the electrode assemblythat are perpendicular to the transverse direction. As yet anotherexample, a Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the verticaldirection is the distance as measured in the vertical direction betweentwo parallel planes restricting the electrode assembly that areperpendicular to the vertical direction.

“Longitudinal axis,” “transverse axis,” and “vertical axis,” as usedherein refer to mutually perpendicular axes (i.e., each are orthogonalto one another). For example, the “longitudinal axis,” “transverseaxis,” and the “vertical axis” as used herein are akin to a Cartesiancoordinate system used to define three-dimensional aspects ororientations. As such, the descriptions of elements of the inventivesubject matter herein are not limited to the particular axis or axesused to describe three-dimensional orientations of the elements.Alternatively stated, the axes may be interchangeable when referring tothree-dimensional aspects of the inventive subject matter.

“Longitudinal direction,” “transverse direction,” and “verticaldirection,” as used herein, refer to mutually perpendicular directions(i.e., each are orthogonal to one another). For example, the“longitudinal direction,” “transverse direction,” and the “verticaldirection” as used herein may be generally parallel to the longitudinalaxis, transverse axis and vertical axis, respectively, of a Cartesiancoordinate system used to define three-dimensional aspects ororientations.

“Repeated cycling” as used herein in the context of cycling betweencharged and discharged states of the secondary battery refers to cyclingmore than once from a discharged state to a charged state, or from acharged state to a discharged state. For example, repeated cyclingbetween charged and discharged states can including cycling at least 2times from a discharged to a charged state, such as in charging from adischarged state to a charged state, discharging back to a dischargedstate, charging again to a charged state and finally discharging back tothe discharged state. As yet another example, repeated cycling betweencharged and discharged states at least 2 times can include dischargingfrom a charged state to a discharged state, charging back up to acharged state, discharging again to a discharged state and finallycharging back up to the charged state By way of further example,repeated cycling between charged and discharged states can includecycling at least 5 times, and even cycling at least 10 times from adischarged to a charged state. By way of further example, the repeatedcycling between charged and discharged states can include cycling atleast 25, 50, 100, 300, 500 and even 1000 times from a discharged to acharged state.

“Rated capacity” as used herein in the context of a secondary batteryrefers to the capacity of the secondary battery to deliver a specifiedcurrent over a period of time, as measured under standard temperatureconditions (25° C.). For example, the rated capacity may be measured inunits of Amp·hour, either by determining a current output for aspecified time, or by determining for a specified current, the time thecurrent can be output, and taking the product of the current and time.For example, for a battery rated 20 Amp·hr, if the current is specifiedat 2 amperes for the rating, then the battery can be understood to beone that will provide that current output for 10 hours, and converselyif the time is specified at 10 hours for the rating, then the batterycan be understood to be one that will output 2 amperes during the 10hours. In particular, the rated capacity for a secondary battery may begiven as the rated capacity at a specified discharge current, such asthe C-rate, where the C-rate is a measure of the rate at which thebattery is discharged relative to its capacity. For example, a C-rate of1C indicates the discharge current that discharges the battery in onehour, 2C indicates the discharge current that discharges the battery in½ hours, C/2 indicates the discharge current that discharges the batteryin 2 hours, etc. Thus, for example, a battery rated at 20 Amp·hr at aC-rate of 1C would give a discharge current of 2C Amp for 1 hour,whereas a battery rated at 20 Amp·hr at a C-rate of 2C would give adischarge current of 40 Amps for ½ hour, and a battery rated at 20Amp·hr at a C-rate of C/2 would give a discharge current of 10 Amps over2 hours.

“Maximum width” (W_(EA)) as used herein in the context of a dimension ofan electrode assembly corresponds to the greatest width of the electrodeassembly as measured from opposing points of longitudinal end surfacesof the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction.

“Maximum length” (L_(EA)) as used herein in the context of a dimensionof an electrode assembly corresponds to the greatest length of theelectrode assembly as measured from opposing points of a lateral surfaceof the electrode assembly in the transverse direction.

“Maximum height” (H_(EA)) as used herein in the context of a dimensionof an electrode assembly corresponds to the greatest height of theelectrode assembly as measured from opposing points of the lateralsurface of the electrode assembly in the transverse direction.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

In general, the present disclosure is directed to an energy storagedevice 100, such as a secondary battery 102, as shown for example inFIG. 2A and/or FIG. 20, that cycles between a charged and a dischargedstate. The secondary battery 102 includes a battery enclosure 104, anelectrode assembly 106, carrier ions, and a non-aqueous liquidelectrolyte within the battery enclosure. The secondary battery 102 alsoincludes a set of electrode constraints 108 that restrain growth of theelectrode assembly 106. The growth of the electrode assembly 106 that isbeing constrained may be a macroscopic increase in one or moredimensions of the electrode assembly 106.

Further, in general, various aspects of the present disclosure includethree-dimensional constraint structures offering particular advantageswhen incorporated into energy storage devices 100 such as batteries,capacitors, fuel cells, and the like. In one embodiment, the constraintstructures have a configuration and/or structure that is selected toresist at least one of growth, swelling, and/or expansion of anelectrode assembly 106 that can otherwise occur when a secondary battery102 is repeatedly cycled between charged and discharged states. Inparticular, in moving from a discharged state to a charged state,carrier ions such as, for example, one or more of lithium, sodium,potassium, calcium and magnesium, move between the positive and negativeelectrodes in the battery. Upon reaching the electrode, the carrier ionsmay then intercalate or alloy into the electrode material, thusincreasing the size and volume of that electrode. Conversely, reversingto move from the charged state to the discharged state can cause theions to de-intercalate or de-alloy, thus contracting the electrode. Thisalloying and/or intercalation and de-alloying and/or de-intercalationcan cause significant volume change in the electrode. Thus, the repeatedexpansion and contraction of the electrodes upon charging anddischarging can create strain in the electrode assembly 106, which canlead to reduced performance and ultimately even failure of the secondarybattery.

Referring to FIGS. 2A-2C, the effects of the repeated expansion and/orcontraction of the electrode assembly 106, according to an embodiment ofthe disclosure, can be described. FIG. 2A shows an embodiment of athree-dimensional electrode assembly 106, with a population of electrodestructures 110 and a population of counter-electrode structures 112(e.g., population of anode and cathode structures, respectively). Thethree-dimensional electrode assembly 106 in this embodiment provides analternating set of the electrodes structures 110 and counter electrodestructures 112 that are interdigitated with one another and, in theembodiment shown in FIG. 2A, has a longitudinal axis A_(EA) parallel tothe Y axis, a transverse axis (not shown) parallel to the X axis, and avertical axis (not shown) parallel to the Z axis. The X, Y and Z axesshown herein are arbitrary axes intended only to show a basis set wherethe axes are mutually perpendicular to one another in a reference space,and are not intended in any way to limit the structures herein to aspecific orientation. Upon charge and discharge cycling of a secondarybattery 102 having the electrode assembly 106, the carrier ions travelbetween the electrode and counter-electrode structures 110 and 112,respectively, such as generally in a direction that is parallel to the Yaxis as shown in the embodiment depicted in FIG. 2A, and can intercalateinto electrode material of one or more of the electrode structures 110and counter-electrode structures 112 that is located within thedirection of travel. The effect of intercalation and/or alloying ofcarrier ions into the electrode material can be seen in the embodimentsillustrated in FIGS. 2B-2C. In particular, FIG. 2B depicts an embodimentof the electrode assembly 106 with electrode structures 110 in arelatively unexpanded state, such as prior to repeated cycling of thesecondary battery 106 between charged and discharged states. Bycomparison, FIG. 2C depicts an embodiment of the electrode assembly 106with electrode structures 110 after repeated cycling of the secondarybattery for a predetermined number of cycles. As shown in this figure,the dimensions of the electrode structures 110 can increasesignificantly in the stacking direction (e.g., Y-direction), due to theintercalation and/or alloying of carrier ions into the electrodematerial. The dimensions of the electrode structures 110 can alsosignificantly increase in another direction, such as in the Z-direction(not shown in FIG. 2C). Furthermore, the increase in size of theelectrode structures 110 can result in the deformation of the structuresinside the electrode assembly, such as deformation of thecounter-electrode structures 112 and separator 130 in the assembly, toaccommodate the expansion in the electrode structures 110. The expansionof the electrode structures 110 can ultimately result in the bulgingand/or warping of the electrode assembly 106 at the longitudinal endsthereof, as depicted in the embodiment shown in FIG. 2C (as well as inother directions such as at the top and bottom surfaces in theZ-direction). Accordingly, the electrode assembly 106 according to oneembodiment can exhibit significant expansion and contraction along thelongitudinal (Y axis) of the assembly 106, as well as other axis, due tothe intercalation and de-intercalation of the carrier ions during thecharging and discharging process.

Thus, in one embodiment, a primary growth constraint system 151 isprovided to mitigate and/or reduce at least one of growth, expansion,and/or swelling of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection (i.e., in a direction that parallels the Y axis), as shown forexample in FIG. 1. For example, the primary growth constraint system 151can include structures configured to constrain growth by opposingexpansion at longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 of the electrodeassembly 106. In one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system151 comprises first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156, thatare separated from each other in the longitudinal direction, and thatoperate in conjunction with at least one primary connecting member 162that connects the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156together to restrain growth in the electrode assembly 106. For example,the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 may at leastpartially cover first and second longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 ofthe electrode assembly 106, and may operate in conjunction withconnecting members 162, 164 connecting the primary growth constraints154, 156 to one another to oppose and restrain any growth in theelectrode assembly 106 that occurs during repeated cycles of chargingand/or discharging. Further discussion of embodiments and operation ofthe primary growth constraint system 151 is provided in more detailbelow.

In addition, repeated cycling through charge and discharge processes ina secondary battery 102 can induce growth and strain not only in alongitudinal direction of the electrode assembly 106 (e.g., Y-axis inFIG. 2A), but can also induce growth and strain in directions orthogonalto the longitudinal direction, as discussed above, such as thetransverse and vertical directions (e.g., X and Z axes, respectively, inFIG. 2A). Furthermore, in certain embodiments, the incorporation of aprimary growth constraint system 151 to inhibit growth in one directioncan even exacerbate growth and/or swelling in one or more otherdirections. For example, in a case where the primary growth constraintsystem 151 is provided to restrain growth of the electrode assembly 106in the longitudinal direction, the intercalation of carrier ions duringcycles of charging and discharging and the resulting swelling ofelectrode structures can induce strain in one or more other directions.In particular, in one embodiment, the strain generated by thecombination of electrode growth/swelling and longitudinal growthconstraints can result in buckling or other failure(s) of the electrodeassembly 106 in the vertical direction (e.g., the Z axis as shown inFIG. 2A), or even in the transverse direction (e.g., the X axis as shownin FIG. 2A).

Accordingly, in one embodiment of the present disclosure, the secondarybattery 102 includes not only a primary growth constraint system 151,but also at least one secondary growth constraint system 152 that mayoperate in conjunction with the primary growth constraint system 151 torestrain growth of the electrode assembly 106 along multiple axes of theelectrode assembly 106. For example, in one embodiment, the secondarygrowth constraint system 152 may be configured to interlock with, orotherwise synergistically operate with, the primary growth constraintsystem 151, such that overall growth of the electrode assembly 106 canbe restrained to impart improved performance and reduced incidence offailure of the secondary battery having the electrode assembly 106 andprimary and secondary growth constraint systems 151 and 152.respectively. Further discussion of embodiments of the interrelationshipbetween the primary and secondary growth constraint systems 151 and 152,respectively, and their operation to restrain growth of the electrodeassembly 106, is provided in more detail below.

By constraining the growth of the electrode assembly 106, it is meantthat, as discussed above, an overall macroscopic increase in one or moredimensions of the electrode assembly 106 is being constrained. That is,the overall growth of the electrode assembly 106 may be constrained suchthat an increase in one or more dimensions of the electrode assembly 106along (the X, Y, and Z axes) is controlled, even though a change involume of one or more electrodes within the electrode assembly 106 maynonetheless occur on a smaller (e.g., microscopic) scale during chargeand discharge cycles. The microscopic change in electrode volume may beobservable, for example, via scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Whilethe set of electrode constraints 108 may be capable of inhibiting someindividual electrode growth on the microscopic level, some growth maystill occur, although the growth may at least be restrained. The volumechange in the individual electrodes upon charge/discharge, while it maybe a small change on the microscopic level for each individualelectrode, can nonetheless have an additive effect that results in arelatively larger volume change on the macroscopic level for the overallelectrode assembly 106 in cycling between charged and discharged states,thereby potentially causing strain in the electrode assembly 106.

According to one embodiment, an electrode active material used in anelectrode structure 110 corresponding to an anode of the electrodeassembly 106 comprises a material that expands upon insertion of carrierions into the electrode active material during charge of the secondarybattery 102. For example, the electrode active materials may compriseanodically active materials that accept carrier ions during charging ofthe secondary battery, such as by intercalating with or alloying withthe carrier ions, in an amount that is sufficient to generate anincrease in the volume of the electrode active material. For example, inone embodiment the electrode active material may comprise a materialthat has the capacity to accept more than one mole of carrier ion permole of electrode active material, when the secondary battery 102 ischarged from a discharged to a charged state. By way of further example,the electrode active material may comprise a material that has thecapacity to accept 1.5 or more moles of carrier ion per mole ofelectrode active material, such as 2.0 or more moles of carrier ion permole of electrode active material, and even 2.5 or more moles of carrierion per mole of electrode active material, such as 3.5 moles or more ofcarrier ion per mole of electrode active material. The carrier ionaccepted by the electrode active material may be at least one oflithium, potassium, sodium, calcium, and magnesium. Examples ofelectrode active materials that expand to provide such a volume changeinclude one or more of silicon, aluminum, tin, zinc, silver, antimony,bismuth, gold, platinum, germanium, palladium, and alloys thereof.

Electrode Assembly

Referring again to FIG. 2A, in one embodiment, an interdigitatedelectrode assembly 106 includes a population of electrode structures110, a population of counter-electrode structures 112, and anelectrically insulating microporous separator 130 electricallyinsulating the electrode structures 110 from the counter-electrodestructures 112. In one embodiment, the electrode structures 110 comprisean electrode active material layer 132, an electrode backbone 134 thatsupports the electrode active material layer 132, and an electrodecurrent collector 136, which may be an ionically porous currentcollector to allow ions to pass therethrough, as shown in the embodimentdepicted in FIG. 7. For example, the electrode structure 110, in oneembodiment, can comprise an anode structure, with an anodically activematerial layer, an anode backbone, and an anode current collector.Similarly, in one embodiment, the counter-electrode structures 112comprise a counter-electrode active material layer 138, acounter-electrode current collector 140, and a counter-electrodebackbone 141 that supports one or more of the counter-electrode currentcollector 140 and/or the counter-electrode active material layer 138, asshown for example in the embodiment depicted in FIG. 7. For example, thecounter-electrode structure 112 can comprise, in one embodiment, acathode structure comprising a cathodically active material layer, acathode current collector, and a cathode backbone. The electricallyinsulating microporous separator 130 allows carrier ions to passtherethrough during charge and/or discharge processes, to travel betweenthe electrode structures 110 and counter-electrode structures 112 in theelectrode assembly 106. Furthermore, it should be understood that theelectrode and counter electrode structures 110 and 112, respectively,are not limited to the specific embodiments and structures describedherein, and other configurations, structures, and/or materials otherthan those specifically described herein can also be provided to formthe electrode structures 110 and counter-electrode structures 112. Forexample, the electrode and counter electrode structures 110, 112 can beprovided in a form where the structures are substantially absent anyelectrode and/or counter-electrode backbones 134, 141, such as in a casewhere the region of the electrode and/or counter-electrode structures110, 112 that would contain the backbones is instead made up ofelectrode active material and/or counter-electrode active material.

According to the embodiment as shown in FIG. 2A, the members of theelectrode and counter-electrode structure populations 110 and 112,respectively, are arranged in alternating sequence, with a direction ofthe alternating sequence corresponding to the stacking direction D. Theelectrode assembly 106 according to this embodiment further comprisesmutually perpendicular longitudinal, transverse, and vertical axes, withthe longitudinal axis A_(EA) generally corresponding or parallel to thestacking direction D of the members of the electrode andcounter-electrode structure populations. As shown in the embodiment inFIG. 2A, the longitudinal axis A_(EA) is depicted as corresponding tothe Y axis, the transverse axis is depicted as corresponding to the Xaxis, and the vertical axis is depicted as corresponding to the Z axis.

Further, the electrode assembly 106 has a maximum width W_(EA) measuredin the longitudinal direction (i.e., along the y-axis), a maximum lengthL_(EA) bounded by the lateral surface and measured in the transversedirection (i.e., along the x-axis), and a maximum height H_(EA) alsobounded by the lateral surface and measured in the vertical direction(i.e., along the z-axis). The maximum width W_(EA) can be understood ascorresponding to the greatest width of the electrode assembly 106 asmeasured from opposing points of the longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118of the electrode assembly 106 where the electrode assembly is widest inthe longitudinal direction. For example, referring to the embodiment ofthe electrode assembly 106 in FIG. 2, the maximum width W_(EA) can beunderstood as corresponding simply to the width of the assembly 106 asmeasured in the longitudinal direction. However, referring to theembodiment of the electrode assembly 106 shown in FIG. 3H, it can beseen that the maximum width W_(EA) corresponds to the width of theelectrode assembly as measured from the two opposing points 300 a, 300b, where the electrode assembly is widest in the longitudinal direction,as opposed to a width as measured from opposing points 301 a, 301 bwhere the electrode assembly 106 is more narrow. Similarly, the maximumlength L_(EA) can be understood as corresponding to the greatest lengthof the electrode assembly as measured from opposing points of thelateral surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106 where the electrodeassembly is longest in the transverse direction. Referring again to theembodiment in FIG. 2A, the maximum length L_(EA) can be understood assimply the length of the electrode assembly 106, whereas in theembodiment shown in FIG. 3H, the maximum length L_(EA) corresponds tothe length of the electrode assembly as measured from two opposingpoints 302 a, 302 b, where the electrode assembly is longest in thetransverse direction, as opposed to a length as measured from opposingpoints 303 a, 303 b where the electrode assembly is shorter. Alongsimilar lines, the maximum height H_(EA) can be understood ascorresponding to the greatest height of the electrode assembly asmeasured from opposing points of the lateral surface 143 of theelectrode assembly where the electrode assembly is highest in thevertical direction. That is, in the embodiment shown in FIG. 2A, themaximum height H_(EA) is simply the height of the electrode assembly.While not specifically depicted in the embodiment shown in FIG. 3H, ifthe electrode assembly had different heights at points across one ormore of the longitudinal and transverse directions, then the maximumheight H_(EA) of the electrode assembly would be understood tocorrespond to the height of the electrode assembly as measured from twoopposing points where the electrode assembly is highest in the verticaldirection, as opposed to a height as measured from opposing points wherethe electrode assembly is shorter, as analogously described for themaximum width W_(EA) and maximum length L_(EA). The maximum lengthL_(EA), maximum width W_(EA), and maximum height H_(EA) of the electrodeassembly 106 may vary depending upon the energy storage device 100 andthe intended use thereof. For example, in one embodiment, the electrodeassembly 106 may include maximum lengths L_(EA), widths W_(EA), andheights H_(EA) typical of conventional secondary battery dimensions. Byway of further example, in one embodiment, the electrode assembly 106may include maximum lengths L_(EA), widths W_(EA), and heights H_(EA)typical of thin-film battery dimensions.

In some embodiments, the dimensions L_(EA), W_(EA), and H_(EA) areselected to provide an electrode assembly 106 having a maximum lengthL_(EA) along the transverse axis (X axis) and/or a maximum width W_(EA)along the longitudinal axis (Y axis) that is longer than the maximumheight H_(EA) along the vertical axis (Z axis). For example, in theembodiment shown in FIG. 2A, the dimensions L_(EA), W_(EA), and H_(EA)are selected to provide an electrode assembly 106 having the greatestdimension along the transverse axis (X axis) that is orthogonal withelectrode structure stacking direction D, as well as along thelongitudinal axis (Y axis) coinciding with the electrode structurestacking direction D. That is, the maximum length L_(EA) and/or maximumwidth W_(EA) may be greater than the maximum height H_(EA). For example,in one embodiment, a ratio of the maximum length L_(EA) to the maximumheight H_(EA) may be at least 2:1. By way of further example, in oneembodiment a ratio of the maximum length L_(EA) to the maximum heightH_(EA) may be at least 5:1. By way of further example, in oneembodiment, the ratio of the maximum length L_(EA) to the maximum heightH_(EA) may be at least 10:1. By way of further example, in oneembodiment, the ratio of the maximum length L_(EA) to the maximum heightH_(EA) may be at least 15:1. By way of further example, in oneembodiment, the ratio of the maximum length L_(EA) to the maximum heightH_(EA) may be at least 20:1. The ratios of the different dimensions mayallow for optimal configurations within an energy storage device tomaximize the amount of active materials, thereby increasing energydensity.

In some embodiments, the maximum width W_(EA) may be selected to providea width of the electrode assembly 106 that is greater than the maximumheight H_(EA). For example, in one embodiment, a ratio of the maximumwidth W_(EA) to the maximum height H_(EA) may be at least 2:1. By way offurther example, in one embodiment, the ratio of the maximum widthW_(EA) to the maximum height H_(EA) may be at least 5:1. By way offurther example, in one embodiment, the ratio of the maximum widthW_(EA) to the maximum height H_(EA) may be at least 10:1. By way offurther example, in one embodiment, the ratio of the maximum widthW_(EA) to the maximum height H_(EA) may be at least 15:1. By way offurther example, in one embodiment, the ratio of the maximum widthW_(EA) to the maximum height H_(EA) may be at least 20:1.

According to one embodiment, a ratio of the maximum width W_(EA) to themaximum length L_(EA) may be selected to be within a predetermined rangethat provides for an optimal configuration. For example, in oneembodiment, a ratio of the maximum width W_(EA) to the maximum lengthL_(EA) may be in the range of from 1:5 to 5:1. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment a ratio of the maximum width W_(EA) to themaximum length L_(EA) may be in the range of from 1:3 to 3:1. By way ofyet a further example, in one embodiment a ratio of the maximum widthW_(EA) to the maximum length L_(EA) may be in the range of from 1:2 to2:1.

In the embodiment as shown in FIG. 2A, the electrode assembly 106 hasthe first longitudinal end surface 116 and the opposing secondlongitudinal end surface 118 that is separated from the firstlongitudinal end surface 116 along the longitudinal axis A_(EA). Theelectrode assembly 106 further comprises a lateral surface 142 that atleast partially surrounds the longitudinal axis A_(EA), and thatconnects the first and second longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118. In oneembodiment, the maximum width W_(EA) is the dimension along thelongitudinal axis A_(EA) as measured from the first longitudinal endsurface 116 to the second longitudinal end surface 118. Similarly, themaximum length L_(EA) may be bounded by the lateral surface 142, and inone embodiment, may be the dimension as measured from opposing first andsecond regions 144, 146 of the lateral surface 142 along the transverseaxis that is orthogonal to the longitudinal axis. The maximum heightH_(EA), in one embodiment, may be bounded by the lateral surface 142 andmay be measured from opposing first and second regions 148, 150 of thelateral surface 142 along the vertical axis that is orthogonal to thelongitudinal axis.

For the purposes of clarity, only four electrode structures 110 and fourcounter-electrode structures 112 are illustrated in the embodiment shownin FIG. 2A. For example, the alternating sequence of members of theelectrode and counter-electrode structure populations 110 and 112,respectively, may include any number of members for each population,depending on the energy storage device 100 and the intended use thereof,and the alternating sequence of members of the electrode andcounter-electrode structure populations 110 and 112 may beinterdigitated, for example, as shown in FIG. 2A. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment, each member of the population of electrodestructures 110 may reside between two members of the population ofcounter-electrode structures 112, with the exception of when thealternating sequence terminates along the stacking direction, D. By wayof further example, in one embodiment, each member of the population ofcounter-electrode structures 112 may reside between two members of thepopulation of electrode structures 110, with the exception of when thealternating sequence terminates along the stacking direction, D. By wayof further example, in one embodiment, and stated more generally, thepopulation of electrode structures 110 and the population ofcounter-electrode structures 112 each have N members, each of N−1electrode structure members 110 is between two counter-electrodestructure members 112, each of N−1 counter-electrode structure members112 is between two electrode structure members 110, and N is at least 2.By way of further example, in one embodiment, N is at least 4. By way offurther example, in one embodiment, N is at least 5. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment, N is at least 10. By way of further example,in one embodiment, N is at least 25. By way of further example, in oneembodiment, N is at least 50. By way of further example, in oneembodiment, N is at least 100 or more. In one embodiment, members of theelectrode and/or counter-electrode populations extend sufficiently froman imaginary backplane (e.g., a plane substantially coincident with asurface of the electrode assembly) to have a surface area (ignoringporosity) that is greater than twice the geometrical footprint (i.e.,projection) of the members in the backplane. In certain embodiments, theratio of the surface area of a non-laminar (i.e., three-dimensional)electrode and/or counter-electrode structure to its geometric footprintin the imaginary backplane may be at least about 5, at least about 10,at least about 50, at least about 100, or even at least about 500. Ingeneral, however, the ratio will be between about 2 and about 1000. Inone such embodiment, members of the electrode population are non-laminarin nature. By way of further example, in one such embodiment, members ofthe counter-electrode population are non-laminar in nature. By way offurther example, in one such embodiment, members of the electrodepopulation and members of the counter-electrode population arenon-laminar in nature.

According to one embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 has longitudinalends 117, 119 at which the electrode assembly 106 terminates. Accordingto one embodiment, the alternating sequence of electrode andcounter-electrode structures 110, 112, respectively, in the electrodeassembly 106 terminates in a symmetric fashion along the longitudinaldirection, such as with electrode structures 110 at each end 117, 119 ofthe electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction, or withcounter-electrode structures 112 at each end 117, 119 of the electrodeassembly 106, in the longitudinal direction. In another embodiment, thealternating sequence of electrode 110 and counter-electrode structures112 may terminate in an asymmetric fashion along the longitudinaldirection, such as with an electrode structure 110 at one end 117 of thelongitudinal axis A_(EA), and a counter-electrode structure 112 at theother end 119 of the longitudinal axis A_(EA). According to yet anotherembodiment, the electrode assembly 106 may terminate with a substructureof one or more of an electrode structure 110 and/or counter-electrodestructure 112 at one or more ends 117, 119 of the electrode assembly106. By way of example, according to one embodiment, the alternatingsequence of the electrode 110 and counter-electrode structures 112 canterminate at one or more substructures of the electrode 110 andcounter-electrode structures 112, including an electrode backbone 134,counter-electrode backbone 141, electrode current collector 136,counter-electrode current collector 140, electrode active material layer132, counter-electrode active material layer 138, and the like, and mayalso terminate with a structure such as the separator 130, and thestructure at each longitudinal end 117, 119 of the electrode assembly106 may be the same (symmetric) or different (asymmetric). Thelongitudinal terminal ends 117, 119 of the electrode assembly 106 cancomprise the first and second longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 thatare contacted by the first and second primary growth constraints 154,156 to constrain overall growth of the electrode assembly 106.

According to yet another embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 hasfirst and second transverse ends 145, 147 (see, e.g., FIG. 2A) that maycontact one or more electrode and/or counter electrode tabs 190, 192(see, e.g., FIG. 20) that may be used to electrically connect theelectrode and/or counter-electrode structures 110, 112 to a load and/ora voltage supply (not shown). For example, the electrode assembly 106can comprise an electrode bus 194 (see, e.g., FIG. 2A), to which eachelectrode structure 110 can be connected, and that pools current fromeach member of the population of electrode structures 110. Similarly,the electrode assembly 106 can comprise a counter-electrode bus 196 towhich each counter-electrode structure 112 may be connected, and thatpools current from each member of the population of counter-electrodestructures 112. The electrode and/or counter-electrode buses 194, 196each have a length measured in direction D, and extending substantiallythe entire length of the interdigitated series of electrode structures110, 112. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 20, the electrode tab190 and/or counter electrode tab 192 includes electrode tab extensions191, 193 which electrically connect with, and run substantially theentire length of electrode and/or counter-electrode bus 194, 196.Alternatively, the electrode and/or counter electrode tabs 190, 192 maydirectly connect to the electrode and/or counter-electrode bus 194, 196,for example, an end or position intermediate thereof along the length ofthe buses 194, 196, without requiring the tab extensions 191, 193.Accordingly, in one embodiment, the electrode and/or counter-electrodebuses 194, 196 can form at least a portion of the terminal ends 145, 147of the electrode assembly 106 in the transverse direction, and connectthe electrode assembly to the tabs 190, 192 for electrical connection toa load and/or voltage supply (not shown). Furthermore, in yet anotherembodiment, the electrode assembly 106 comprises first and secondterminal ends 149, 153 disposed along the vertical (Z) axis. Forexample, according to one embodiment, each electrode 110 and/orcounter-electrode structure 112, is provided with a top and bottomcoating of separator material, as shown in FIG. 2A, where the coatingsform the terminal ends 149, 153 of the electrode assembly 106 in thevertical direction. The terminal ends 149, 153 that may be formed of thecoating of separator material can comprise first and second surfaceregions 148, 150 of the lateral surface 142 along the vertical axis thatcan be placed in contact with the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160 to constrain growth in the vertical direction.

In general, the electrode assembly 106 can comprise longitudinal endsurfaces 116, 118 that are planar, co-planar, or non-planar. Forexample, in one embodiment the opposing longitudinal end surfaces 116,118 may be convex. By way of further example, in one embodiment theopposing longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 may be concave. By way offurther example, in one embodiment the opposing longitudinal endsurfaces 116, 118 are substantially planar. In certain embodiments,electrode assembly 106 may include opposing longitudinal end surfaces116, 118 having any range of two-dimensional shapes when projected ontoa plane. For example, the longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 mayindependently have a smooth curved shape (e.g., round, elliptical,hyperbolic, or parabolic), they may independently include a series oflines and vertices (e.g., polygonal), or they may independently includea smooth curved shape and include one or more lines and vertices.Similarly, the lateral surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106 may bea smooth curved shape (e.g., the electrode assembly 106 may have around, elliptical, hyperbolic, or parabolic cross-sectional shape) orthe lateral surface 142 may include two or more lines connected atvertices (e.g., the electrode assembly 106 may have a polygonalcross-section). For example, in one embodiment, the electrode assembly106 has a cylindrical, elliptic cylindrical, parabolic cylindrical, orhyperbolic cylindrical shape. By way of further example, in one suchembodiment, the electrode assembly 106 may have a prismatic shape,having opposing longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 of the same size andshape and a lateral surface 142 (i.e., the faces extending between theopposing longitudinal end surfaces 116 and 118) beingparallelogram-shaped. By way of further example, in one such embodiment,the electrode assembly 106 has a shape that corresponds to a triangularprism, the electrode assembly 106 having two opposing triangularlongitudinal end surfaces 116 and 118 and a lateral surface 142consisting of three parallelograms (e.g., rectangles) extending betweenthe two longitudinal ends. By way of further example, in one suchembodiment, the electrode assembly 106 has a shape that corresponds to arectangular prism, the electrode assembly 106 having two opposingrectangular longitudinal end surfaces 116 and 118, and a lateral surface142 comprising four parallelogram (e.g., rectangular) faces. By way offurther example, in one such embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 hasa shape that corresponds to a pentagonal prism, hexagonal prism, etc.wherein the electrode assembly 106 has two pentagonal, hexagonal, etc.,respectively, opposing longitudinal end surfaces 116 and 118, and alateral surface comprising five, six, etc., respectively, parallelograms(e.g., rectangular) faces.

Referring now to FIGS. 3A-3H, several exemplary geometric shapes areschematically illustrated for electrode assembly 106. More specifically,in FIG. 3A, electrode assembly 106 has a triangular prismatic shape withopposing first and second longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 separatedalong longitudinal axis A_(EA), and a lateral surface 142 including thethree rectangular faces connecting the longitudinal end surfaces 116,118, that are about the longitudinal axis A_(EA). In FIG. 3B, electrodeassembly 106 has a parallelopiped shape with opposing first and secondparallelogram longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 separated alonglongitudinal axis A_(EA), and a lateral surface 142 including the fourparallelogram-shaped faces connecting the two longitudinal end surfaces116, 118, and surrounding longitudinal axis A_(EA). In FIG. 3C,electrode assembly 106 has a rectangular prism shape with opposing firstand second rectangular longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 separatedalong longitudinal axis A_(EA), and a lateral surface 142 including thefour rectangular faces connecting the two longitudinal end surfaces 116,118 and surrounding longitudinal axis A_(EA). In FIG. 3D, electrodeassembly 106 has a pentagonal prismatic shape with opposing first andsecond pentagonal longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 separated alonglongitudinal axis A_(EA), and a lateral surface 142 including the fiverectangular faces connecting the two longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118and surrounding longitudinal axis A_(EA). In FIG. 3E, electrode assembly106 has a hexagonal prismatic shape with opposing first and secondhexagonal longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 separated alonglongitudinal axis A_(EA), and a lateral surface 142 including the sixrectangular faces connecting the two longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118and surrounding longitudinal axis A_(EA). In FIG. 3E, the electrodeassembly has a square pyramidal frustum shape with opposing first andsecond square end surfaces 116, 118 separated along longitudinal axisA_(EA), and a lateral surface 142 including four trapezoidal facesconnecting the two longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 and surroundinglongitudinal axis A_(EA), with the trapezoidal faces tapering indimension along the longitudinal axis from a greater dimension at thefirst surface 116 to a smaller dimension at the second surface 118, andthe size of the second surface being smaller than that of the firstsurface. In FIG. 3F, the electrode assembly has a pentagonal pyramidalfrustum shape with opposing first and second square end surfaces 116,118 separated along longitudinal axis A_(EA), and a lateral surface 142including five trapezoidal faces connecting the two longitudinal endsurfaces 116, 118 and surrounding longitudinal axis A_(EA), with thetrapezoidal faces tapering in dimension along the longitudinal axis froma greater dimension at the first surface 116 to a smaller dimension atthe second surface 118, and the size of the second surface being smallerthan that of the first surface. In FIG. 3H, the electrode assembly 106has a pyramidal shape in the longitudinal direction, by virtue ofelectrode and counter-electrode structures 110, 112 having lengths thatdecrease from a first length towards the middle of the electrodeassembly 106 on the longitudinal axis, to second lengths at thelongitudinal ends 117, 119 of the electrode assembly 106.

Electrode Constraints

In one embodiment, a set of electrode constraints 108 is provided thatthat restrains overall macroscopic growth of the electrode assembly 106,as illustrated for example in FIG. 1. The set of electrode constraints108 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106along one or more dimensions, such as to reduce swelling and deformationof the electrode assembly 106, and thereby improve the reliability andcycling lifetime of an energy storage device 100 having the set ofelectrode constraints 108. As discussed above, without being limited toany one particular theory, it is believed that carrier ions travelingbetween the electrode structures 110 and counter electrode structures112 during charging and/or discharging of a secondary battery 102 canbecome inserted into electrode active material, causing the electrodeactive material and/or the electrode structure 110 to expand. Thisexpansion of the electrode structure 110 can cause the electrodes and/orelectrode assembly 106 to deform and swell, thereby compromising thestructural integrity of the electrode assembly 106, and/or increasingthe likelihood of electrical shorting or other failures. In one example,excessive swelling and/or expansion and contraction of the electrodeactive material layer 132 during cycling of an energy storage device 100can cause fragments of electrode active material to break away and/ordelaminate from the electrode active material layer 132, therebycompromising the efficiency and cycling lifetime of the energy storagedevice 100. In yet another example, excessive swelling and/or expansionand contraction of the electrode active material layer 132 can causeelectrode active material to breach the electrically insulatingmicroporous separator 130, thereby causing electrical shorting and otherfailures of the electrode assembly 106. Accordingly, the set ofelectrode constraints 108 inhibit this swelling or growth that canotherwise occur with cycling between charged and discharged states toimprove the reliability, efficiency, and/or cycling lifetime of theenergy storage device 100.

According to one embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108comprises a primary growth constraint system 151 to restrain growthand/or swelling along the longitudinal axis (e.g., Y-axis in FIG. 1) ofthe electrode assembly 106. In another embodiment, the set of electrodeconstraints 108 may include a secondary growth constraint system 152that restrains growth along the vertical axis (e.g., Z-axis in FIG. 1).In yet another embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108 mayinclude a tertiary growth constraint system 155 that restrains growthalong the transverse axis (e.g., X-axis in FIG. 4C). In one embodiment,the set of electrode constraints 108 comprises primary growth andsecondary growth constraint systems 151, 152, respectively, and eventertiary growth constraint systems 155 that operate cooperatively tosimultaneously restrain growth in one or more directions, such as alongthe longitudinal and vertical axis (e.g., Y axis and Z axis), and evensimultaneously along all of the longitudinal, vertical, and transverseaxes (e.g., Y, Z, and X axes). For example, the primary growthconstraint system 151 may restrain growth that can otherwise occur alongthe stacking direction D of the electrode assembly 106 during cyclingbetween charged and discharged states, while the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may restrain swelling and growth that can occuralong the vertical axis, to prevent buckling or other deformation of theelectrode assembly 106 in the vertical direction. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152can reduce swelling and/or expansion along the vertical axis that wouldotherwise be exacerbated by the restraint on growth imposed by theprimary growth constraint system 151. The tertiary growth constraintsystem 155 can also optionally reduce swelling and/or expansion alongthe transverse axis that could occur during cycling processes. That is,according to one embodiment, the primary growth and secondary growthconstraint systems 151, 152, respectively, and optionally the tertiarygrowth constraint system 155, may operate together to cooperativelyrestrain multi-dimensional growth of the electrode assembly 106.

Referring to FIGS. 4A-4B, an embodiment of a set of electrodeconstraints 108 is shown having a primary growth constraint system 151and a secondary growth constraint system 152 for an electrode assembly106. FIG. 4A shows a cross-section of the electrode assembly 106 in FIG.1 taken along the longitudinal axis (Y axis), such that the resulting2-D cross-section is illustrated with the vertical axis (Z axis) andlongitudinal axis (Y axis). FIG. 4B shows a cross-section of theelectrode assembly 106 in FIG. 1 taken along the transverse axis (Xaxis), such that the resulting 2-D cross-section is illustrated with thevertical axis (Z axis) and transverse axis (X axis). As shown in FIG.4A, the primary growth constraint system 151 can generally comprisefirst and second primary growth constraints 154, 156, respectively, thatare separated from one another along the longitudinal direction (Yaxis). For example, in one embodiment, the first and second primarygrowth constraints 154, 156, respectively, comprise a first primarygrowth constraint 154 that at least partially or even entirely covers afirst longitudinal end surface 116 of the electrode assembly 106, and asecond primary growth constraint 156 that at least partially or evenentirely covers a second longitudinal end surface 118 of the electrodeassembly 106. In yet another version, one or more of the first andsecond primary growth constraints 154, 156 may be interior to alongitudinal end 117, 119 of the electrode assembly 106, such as whenone or more of the primary growth constraints comprise an internalstructure of the electrode assembly 106. The primary growth constraintsystem 151 can further comprise at least one primary connecting member162 that connects the first and second primary growth constraints 154,156, and that may have a principal axis that is parallel to thelongitudinal direction. For example, the primary growth constraintsystem 151 can comprise first and second primary connecting members 162,164, respectively, that are separated from each other along an axis thatis orthogonal to the longitudinal axis, such as along the vertical axis(Z axis) as depicted in the embodiment. The first and second primaryconnecting members 162, 164, respectively, can serve to connect thefirst and second primary growth constraints 154, 156, respectively, toone another, and to maintain the first and second primary growthconstraints 154, 156, respectively, in tension with one another, so asto restrain growth along the longitudinal axis of the electrode assembly106.

According to one embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108including the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection (i.e., electrode stacking direction, D) such that any increasein the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinaldirection over 20 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is lessthan 20% between charged and discharged states. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 maybe capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in thelongitudinal direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter ofthe electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction over 30 consecutivecycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 maybe capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in thelongitudinal direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter ofthe electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction over 50 consecutivecycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 maybe capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in thelongitudinal direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter ofthe electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction over 80 consecutivecycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 maybe capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in thelongitudinal direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter ofthe electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction over 100consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%. By way offurther example, in one embodiment the primary growth constraint system151 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in the Feretdiameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction over200 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%. By wayof further example, in one embodiment the primary growth constraintsystem 151 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrodeassembly 106 in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in theFeret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal directionover 300 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%.By way of further example, in one embodiment the primary growthconstraint system 151 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction such that anyincrease in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter ofthe electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction over 500consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%. By way offurther example, in one embodiment the primary growth constraint system151 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in the Feretdiameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction over800 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%. By wayof further example, in one embodiment the primary growth constraintsystem 151 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrodeassembly 106 in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in theFeret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal directionover 1000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%.By way of further example, in one embodiment the primary growthconstraint system 151 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction such that anyincrease in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 2000 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 3000 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery to less than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 5000 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 8000 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 20%.

In yet another embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108including the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 10 consecutive cycles of thesecondary battery is less than 10%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 20 consecutive cycles of thesecondary battery is less than 10%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 30 consecutive cycles of thesecondary battery is less than 10%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 50 consecutive cycles of thesecondary battery is less than 10%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 80 consecutive cycles of thesecondary battery is less than 10%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 100 consecutive cycles ofthe secondary battery is less than 10%. By way of further example, inone embodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capableof restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 200 consecutive cycles ofthe secondary battery is less than 10%. By way of further example, inone embodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capableof restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 300 consecutive cycles ofthe secondary battery is less than 10%. By way of further example, inone embodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capableof restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 500 consecutive cycles ofthe secondary battery is less than 10%. By way of further example, inone embodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capableof restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in theFeret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal directionover 800 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 10%between charged and discharged states. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 1000 consecutive cycles ofthe secondary battery is less than 10%. By way of further example, inone embodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capableof restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 2000 consecutive cycles isless than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodiment the primarygrowth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction such that anyincrease in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 3000 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 5000 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 8000 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 10%.

In yet another embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108including the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 5 consecutive cycles of thesecondary battery is less than 5%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 10 consecutive cycles of thesecondary battery is less than 5%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 20 consecutive cycles of thesecondary battery is less than 5%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 30 consecutive cycles of thesecondary battery is less than 5%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 50 consecutive cycles of thesecondary battery is less than 5%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 80 consecutive cycles of thesecondary battery is less than 5%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 100 consecutive cycles ofthe secondary battery, is less than 5. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 200 consecutive cycles ofthe secondary battery is less than 5%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 300 consecutive cycles ofthe secondary battery is less than 5%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 500 consecutive cycles ofthe secondary battery is less than 5%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 800 consecutive cycles ofthe secondary battery is less than 5%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction over 1000 consecutive cycles ofthe secondary battery is less than 5% between charged and dischargedstates. By way of further example, in one embodiment the primary growthconstraint system 151 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction such that anyincrease in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 2000 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 5% between charged and discharged states. By way offurther example, in one embodiment the primary growth constraint system151 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in the Feretdiameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction over3000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%. By wayof further example, in one embodiment the primary growth constraintsystem 151 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrodeassembly 106 in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in theFeret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal directionover 5000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%.By way of further example, in one embodiment the primary growthconstraint system 151 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction such that anyincrease in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 8000 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 5%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 5%.

In yet another embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108including the primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinaldirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction per cycle of the secondarybattery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 5 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 10 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 20 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 30 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 50 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 80 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 100 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 200 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 300 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 500 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 800 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 1000 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 2000 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 3000 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe primary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction over 5000 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 1% between charged and discharged states. By way offurther example, in one embodiment the primary growth constraint system151 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in the Feretdiameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction over8000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery to less than 1%. By wayof further example, in one embodiment the primary growth constraintsystem 151 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrodeassembly 106 in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in theFeret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal directionover 10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery to less than 1%.

By charged state it is meant that the secondary battery 102 is chargedto at least 75% of its rated capacity, such as at least 80% of its ratedcapacity, and even at least 90% of its rated capacity, such as at least95% of its rated capacity, and even 100% of its rated capacity. Bydischarged state it is meant that the secondary battery is discharged toless than 25% of its rated capacity, such as less than 20% of its ratedcapacity, and even less than 10%, such as less than 5%, and even 0% ofits rated capacity. Furthermore, it is noted that the actual capacity ofthe secondary battery 102 may vary over time and with the number ofcycles the battery has gone through. That is, while the secondarybattery 102 may initially exhibit an actual measured capacity that isclose to its rated capacity, the actual capacity of the battery willdecrease over time, with the secondary battery 102 being considered tobe at the end of its life when the actual capacity drops below 80% ofthe rated capacity as measured in going from a charged to a dischargedstate.

Further shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B, the set of electrode constraints 108can further comprise the secondary growth constraint system 152, thatcan generally comprise first and second secondary growth constraints158, 160, respectively, that are separated from one another along asecond direction orthogonal to the longitudinal direction, such as alongthe vertical axis (Z axis) in the embodiment as shown. For example, inone embodiment, the first secondary growth constraint 158 at leastpartially extends across a first region 148 of the lateral surface 142of the electrode assembly 106, and the second secondary growthconstraint 160 at least partially extends across a second region 150 ofthe lateral surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106 that opposes thefirst region 148. In yet another version, one or more of the first andsecond secondary growth constraints 154, 156 may be interior to thelateral surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106, such as when one ormore of the secondary growth constraints comprise an internal structureof the electrode assembly 106. In one embodiment, the first and secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, are connected by atleast one secondary connecting member 166, which may have a principalaxis that is parallel to the second direction, such as the verticalaxis. The secondary connecting member 166 may serve to connect and holdthe first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, in tension with one another, so as to restrain growth ofthe electrode assembly 106 along a direction orthogonal to thelongitudinal direction, such as for example to restrain growth in thevertical direction (e.g., along the Z axis). In the embodiment depictedin FIG. 4A, the at least one secondary connecting member 166 cancorrespond to at least one of the first and second primary growthconstraints 154, 156. However, the secondary connecting member 166 isnot limited thereto, and can alternatively and/or in addition compriseother structures and/or configurations.

According to one embodiment, the set of constraints including thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in a second direction orthogonal tothe longitudinal direction, such as the vertical direction (Z axis),such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assemblyin the second direction over 20 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe secondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 30 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 50 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 80 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 100 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 200 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 300 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 500 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 800 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 1000 consecutive cycles of the secondary batteryis less than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 2000 consecutive cycles of the secondary batteryis less than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 3000 consecutive cycles of the secondary batteryis less than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 5000 consecutive cycles of the secondary batteryis less than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 8000 consecutive cycles of the secondary batteryis less than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary batteryis less than 20% between charged and discharged states.

In embodiment, the set of constraints including the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 10 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 10%between charged and discharged states. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the secondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second directionsuch that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assemblyin the second direction over 20 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe secondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 30 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 50 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 80 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 100 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 200 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 300 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 500 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 800 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 1000 consecutive cycles of the secondary batteryis less than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 2000 consecutive cycles of the secondary batteryis less than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 3000 consecutive cycles of the secondary batteryis less than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 5000 consecutive cycles of the secondary batteryis less than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 8000 consecutive cycles of the secondary batteryis less than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary batteryis less than 10%.

In embodiment, the set of constraints including the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 5 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%between charged and discharged states. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the secondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second directionsuch that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assemblyin the second direction over 10 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 5%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe secondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 20 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 5%. By way of further example, in one embodiment the secondarygrowth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 30 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 50 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 80 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 100 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 200 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 300 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 500 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 800 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 1000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%.By way of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 151 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 2000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%.By way of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 3000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%.By way of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 5000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%.By way of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 8000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%.By way of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 151 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%.

In embodiment, the set of constraints including the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction percycle of the secondary battery is less than 1%. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment the secondary growth constraint system 152may be capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 inthe second direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter of theelectrode assembly in the second direction over 5 consecutive cycles ofthe secondary battery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the secondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second directionsuch that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assemblyin the second direction over 10 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe secondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 20 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodiment the secondarygrowth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 30 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 50 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 80 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 100 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 200 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 300 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 500 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 800 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 1000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%.By way of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 151 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 2000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%.By way of further example, in one embodiment the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second directionover 3000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%between charged and discharged states. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the secondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second directionsuch that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assemblyin the second direction over 5000 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe secondary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 8000 consecutive cycles of the secondary batteryis less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodiment thesecondary growth constraint system 151 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction over 10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary batteryis less than 1%.

FIG. 4C shows an embodiment of a set of electrode constraints 108 thatfurther includes a tertiary growth constraint system 155 to constraingrowth of the electrode assembly in a third direction that is orthogonalto the longitudinal and second directions, such as the transversedirection (X) direction. The tertiary growth constraint system 155 canbe provided in addition to the primary and secondary growth constraintsystems 151, 152, respectively, to constrain overall growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in three dimensions, and/or may be provided incombination with one of the primary or secondary growth constraintsystems 151, 152, respectively, to constrain overall growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in two dimensions. FIG. 4C shows a cross-sectionof the electrode assembly 106 in FIG. 1 taken along the transverse axis(X axis), such that the resulting 2-D cross-section is illustrated withthe vertical axis (Z axis) and transverse axis (X axis). As shown inFIG. 4C, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 can generallycomprise first and second tertiary growth constraints 157, 159,respectively, that are separated from one another along the thirddirection such as the transverse direction (X axis). For example, in oneembodiment, the first tertiary growth constraint 157 at least partiallyextends across a first region 144 of the lateral surface 142 of theelectrode assembly 106, and the second tertiary growth constraint 159 atleast partially extends across a second region 146 of the lateralsurface 142 of the electrode assembly 106 that opposes the first region144 in the transverse direction. In yet another version, one or more ofthe first and second tertiary growth constraints 157, 159 may beinterior to the lateral surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106, suchas when one or more of the tertiary growth constraints comprise aninternal structure of the electrode assembly 106. In one embodiment, thefirst and second tertiary growth constraints 157, 159, respectively, areconnected by at least one tertiary connecting member 165, which may havea principal axis that is parallel to the third direction. The tertiaryconnecting member 165 may serve to connect and hold the first and secondtertiary growth constraints 157, 159, respectively, in tension with oneanother, so as to restrain growth of the electrode assembly 106 along adirection orthogonal to the longitudinal direction, for example, torestrain growth in the transverse direction (e.g., along the X axis). Inthe embodiment depicted in FIG. 4C, the at least one tertiary connectingmember 165 can correspond to at least one of the first and secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160. However, the tertiary connectingmember 165 is not limited thereto, and can alternatively and/or inaddition comprise other structures and/or configurations. For example,the at least one tertiary connecting member 165 can, in one embodiment,correspond to at least one of the first and second primary growthconstraints 154, 156 (not shown).

According to one embodiment, the set of constraints having the tertiarygrowth constraint system 155 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in a third direction orthogonal to thelongitudinal direction, such as the transverse direction (X axis), suchthat any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thethird direction over 20 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodiment the tertiarygrowth constraint system 155 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over30 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%. By wayof further example, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraintsystem 155 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrodeassembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the Feretdiameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over 50consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%. By way offurther example, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system155 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106in the third direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter ofthe electrode assembly in the third direction over 80 consecutive cyclesof the secondary battery is less than 20%. By way of further example, inone embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capableof restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the thirddirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the third direction over 100 consecutive cycles of thesecondary battery is less than 20%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third directionsuch that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assemblyin the third direction over 200 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thethird direction over 300 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodiment the tertiarygrowth constraint system 155 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over500 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%. By wayof further example, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraintsystem 152 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrodeassembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the Feretdiameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over 800consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%. By way offurther example, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system155 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106in the third direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter ofthe electrode assembly in the third direction over 1000 consecutivecycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 155 maybe capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in thethird direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter of theelectrode assembly in the third direction over 2000 consecutive cyclesof the secondary battery is less than 20%. By way of further example, inone embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capableof restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the thirddirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the third direction over 3000 consecutive cycles of thesecondary battery is less than 20%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third directionsuch that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assemblyin the third direction over 5000 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thethird direction over 8000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodiment the tertiarygrowth constraint system 155 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%.

In one embodiment, the set of constraints having the tertiary growthconstraint system 155 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over10 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 10%. By wayof further example, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraintsystem 155 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrodeassembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the Feretdiameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over 20consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 10%. By way offurther example, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system155 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106in the third direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter ofthe electrode assembly in the third direction over 30 consecutive cyclesof the secondary battery is less than 10%. By way of further example, inone embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capableof restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the thirddirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the third direction over 50 consecutive cycles of thesecondary battery is less than 10%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third directionsuch that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assemblyin the third direction over 80 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thethird direction over 100 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodiment the tertiarygrowth constraint system 155 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over200 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 10%. By wayof further example, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraintsystem 155 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrodeassembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the Feretdiameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over 300consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 10%. By way offurther example, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system155 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106in the third direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter ofthe electrode assembly in the third direction over 500 consecutivecycles of the secondary battery is less than 10%. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 152 maybe capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in thethird direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter of theelectrode assembly in the third direction over 800 consecutive cycles ofthe secondary battery is less than 10%. By way of further example, inone embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capableof restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the thirddirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the third direction over 1000 consecutive cycles of thesecondary battery is less than 10%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third directionsuch that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assemblyin the third direction over 2000 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thethird direction over 3000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodiment the tertiarygrowth constraint system 155 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over5000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 10%between charged and discharged states. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third directionsuch that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assemblyin the third direction over 8000 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thethird direction over 10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary batteryis less than 10%.

In one embodiment, the set of constraints having the tertiary growthconstraint system 155 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over5 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%. By way offurther example, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system155 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106in the third direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter ofthe electrode assembly in the third direction over 10 consecutive cyclesof the secondary battery is less than 5%. By way of further example, inone embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capableof restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the thirddirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the third direction over 20 consecutive cycles of thesecondary battery is less than 5%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third directionsuch that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assemblyin the third direction over 30 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 5%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thethird direction over 50 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 5%. By way of further example, in one embodiment the tertiarygrowth constraint system 155 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over80 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%. By wayof further example, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraintsystem 155 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrodeassembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the Feretdiameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over 100consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%. By way offurther example, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system155 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106in the third direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter ofthe electrode assembly in the third direction over 200 consecutivecycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 155 maybe capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in thethird direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter of theelectrode assembly in the third direction over 300 consecutive cycles ofthe secondary battery is less than 5%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third directionsuch that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assemblyin the third direction over 500 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 5%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe tertiary growth constraint system 152 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thethird direction over 800 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 5%. By way of further example, in one embodiment the tertiarygrowth constraint system 155 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over1000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%. By wayof further example, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraintsystem 155 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrodeassembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the Feretdiameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over 2000consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%. By way offurther example, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system155 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106in the third direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter ofthe electrode assembly in the third direction over 3000 consecutivecycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 155 maybe capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in thethird direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter of theelectrode assembly in the third direction over 5000 consecutive cyclesof the secondary battery is less than 5%. By way of further example, inone embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capableof restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the thirddirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the third direction over 8000 consecutive cycles of thesecondary battery is less than 5%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third directionsuch that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assemblyin the third direction over 10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 5%.

In one embodiment, the set of constraints having the tertiary growthconstraint system 155 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction percycle of the secondary battery is less than 1%. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 155 maybe capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in thethird direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter of theelectrode assembly in the third direction over 5 consecutive cycles ofthe secondary battery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third directionsuch that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assemblyin the third direction over 10 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thethird direction over 20 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodiment the tertiarygrowth constraint system 155 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over30 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%. By wayof further example, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraintsystem 155 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrodeassembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the Feretdiameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over 50consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%. By way offurther example, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system155 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106in the third direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter ofthe electrode assembly in the third direction over 80 consecutive cyclesof the secondary battery is less than 1%. By way of further example, inone embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capableof restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the thirddirection such that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrodeassembly in the third direction over 100 consecutive cycles of thesecondary battery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capable ofrestraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third directionsuch that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assemblyin the third direction over 200 consecutive cycles of the secondarybattery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thethird direction over 300 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodiment the tertiarygrowth constraint system 155 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over500 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%. By wayof further example, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraintsystem 152 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrodeassembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the Feretdiameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over 800consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%. By way offurther example, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system155 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106in the third direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter ofthe electrode assembly in the third direction over 1000 consecutivecycles of the secondary battery is less than 1% between charged anddischarged states. By way of further example, in one embodiment thetertiary growth constraint system 155 may be capable of restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such thatany increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in thethird direction over 2000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery isless than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodiment the tertiarygrowth constraint system 155 may be capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase inthe Feret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over3000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%. By wayof further example, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraintsystem 155 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrodeassembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the Feretdiameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over 5000consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%. By way offurther example, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system155 may be capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106in the third direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter ofthe electrode assembly in the third direction over 8000 consecutivecycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment the tertiary growth constraint system 155 maybe capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in thethird direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter of theelectrode assembly in the third direction over 10,000 consecutive cyclesof the secondary battery is less than 1%.

According to one embodiment, the primary and secondary growth constraintsystems 151, 152, respectively, and optionally the tertiary growthconstraint system 155, are configured to cooperatively operate such thatportions of the primary growth constraint system 151 cooperatively actas a part of the secondary growth constraint system 152, and/or portionsof the secondary growth constraint system 152 cooperatively act as apart of the primary growth constraint system 151, and the portions ofany of the primary and/or secondary constraint systems 151, 152,respectively, may also cooperatively act as a part of the tertiarygrowth constraint system, and vice versa. For example, in the embodimentshown in in FIGS. 4A and 4B, the first and second primary connectingmembers 162, 164, respectively, of the primary growth constraint system151 can serve as at least a portion of, or even the entire structure of,the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160 thatconstrain growth in the second direction orthogonal to the longitudinaldirection. In yet another embodiment, as mentioned above, one or more ofthe first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156, respectively,can serve as one or more secondary connecting members 166 to connect thefirst and second secondary growth constrains 158, 160, respectively.Conversely, at least a portion of the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, can act as first and second primaryconnecting members 162, 164, respectively, of the primary growthconstraint system 151, and the at least one secondary connecting member166 of the secondary growth constraint system 152 can, in oneembodiment, act as one or more of the first and second primary growthconstraints 154, 156, respectively. In yet another embodiment, at leasta portion of the first and second primary connecting members 162, 164,respectively, of the primary growth constraint system 151, and/or the atleast one secondary connecting member 166 of the secondary growthconstraint system 152 can serve as at least a portion of, or even theentire structure of, the first and second tertiary growth constraints157, 159, respectively, that constrain growth in the transversedirection orthogonal to the longitudinal direction. In yet anotherembodiment, one or more of the first and second primary growthconstraints 154, 156, respectively, and/or the first and secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, can serve as one ormore tertiary connecting members 166 to connect the first and secondtertiary growth constraints 157, 159, respectively. Conversely, at leasta portion of the first and second tertiary growth constraints 157, 159,respectively, can act as first and second primary connecting members162, 164, respectively, of the primary growth constraint system 151,and/or the at least one secondary connecting member 166 of the secondarygrowth constraint system 152, and the at least one tertiary connectingmember 165 of the tertiary growth constraint system 155 can in oneembodiment act as one or more of the first and second primary growthconstraints 154, 156, respectively, and/or one or more of the first andsecond secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively.Alternatively and/or additionally, the primary and/or secondary and/ortertiary growth constraints can comprise other structures that cooperateto restrain growth of the electrode assembly 106. Accordingly, theprimary and secondary growth constraint systems 151, 152, respectively,and optionally the tertiary growth constraint system 155, can sharecomponents and/or structures to exert restraint on the growth of theelectrode assembly 106.

In one embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108 can comprisestructures such as the primary and secondary growth constraints, andprimary and secondary connecting members, that are structures that areexternal to and/or internal to the battery enclosure 104, or may be apart of the battery enclosure 104 itself. For example, the set ofelectrode constraints 108 can comprise a combination of structures thatincludes the battery enclosure 104 as well as other structuralcomponents. In one such embodiment, the battery enclosure 104 may be acomponent of the primary growth constraint system 151 and/or thesecondary growth constraint system 152; stated differently, in oneembodiment, the battery enclosure 104, alone or in combination with oneor more other structures (within and/or outside the battery enclosure104, for example, the primary growth constraint system 151 and/or asecondary growth constraint system 152) restrains growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the electrode stacking direction D and/or inthe second direction orthogonal to the stacking direction, D. Forexample, one or more of the primary growth constraints 154, 156 andsecondary growth constraints 158, 160 can comprise a structure that isinternal to the electrode assembly. In another embodiment, the primarygrowth constraint system 151 and/or secondary growth constraint system152 does not include the battery enclosure 104, and instead one or morediscrete structures (within and/or outside the battery enclosure 104)other than the battery enclosure 104 restrains growth of the electrodeassembly 106 in the electrode stacking direction, D, and/or in thesecond direction orthogonal to the stacking direction, D. The electrodeassembly 106 may be restrained by the set of electrode constraints 108at a pressure that is greater than the pressure exerted by growth and/orswelling of the electrode assembly 106 during repeated cycling of anenergy storage device 100 or a secondary battery having the electrodeassembly 106.

In one exemplary embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151includes one or more discrete structure(s) within the battery enclosure104 that restrains growth of the electrode structure 110 in the stackingdirection D by exerting a pressure that exceeds the pressure generatedby the electrode structure 110 in the stacking direction D upon repeatedcycling of a secondary battery 102 having the electrode structure 110 asa part of the electrode assembly 106. In another exemplary embodiment,the primary growth constraint system 151 includes one or more discretestructures within the battery enclosure 104 that restrains growth of thecounter-electrode structure 112 in the stacking direction D by exertinga pressure in the stacking direction D that exceeds the pressuregenerated by the counter-electrode structure 112 in the stackingdirection D upon repeated cycling of a secondary battery 102 having thecounter-electrode structure 112 as a part of the electrode assembly 106.The secondary growth constraint system 152 can similarly include one ormore discrete structures within the battery enclosure 104 that restraingrowth of at least one of the electrode structures 110 andcounter-electrode structures 112 in the second direction orthogonal tothe stacking direction D, such as along the vertical axis (Z axis), byexerting a pressure in the second direction that exceeds the pressuregenerated by the electrode or counter-electrode structure 110, 112,respectively, in the second direction upon repeated cycling of asecondary battery 102 having the electrode or counter electrodestructures 110, 112, respectively.

In yet another embodiment, the first and second primary growthconstraints 154, 156, respectively, of the primary growth constraintsystem 151 restrain growth of the electrode assembly 106 by exerting apressure on the first and second longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 ofthe electrode assembly 106, meaning, in a longitudinal direction, thatexceeds a pressure exerted by the first and second primary growthconstraints 154, 156 on other surfaces of the electrode assembly 106that would be in a direction orthogonal to the longitudinal direction,such as opposing first and second regions of the lateral surface 142 ofthe electrode assembly 106 along the transverse axis and/or verticalaxis. That is, the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156may exert a pressure in a longitudinal direction (Y axis) that exceeds apressure generated thereby in directions orthogonal thereto, such as thetransverse (X axis) and vertical (Z axis) directions. For example, inone such embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 restrainsgrowth of the electrode assembly 106 with a pressure on first and secondlongitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 (i.e., in the stacking direction D)that exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 bythe primary growth constraint system 151 in at least one, or even both,of the two directions that are perpendicular to the stacking directionD, by a factor of at least 3. By way of further example, in one suchembodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 restrains growth ofthe electrode assembly 106 with a pressure on first and secondlongitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 (i.e., in the stacking direction D)that exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 bythe primary growth constraint system 151 in at least one, or even both,of the two directions that are perpendicular to the stacking direction Dby a factor of at least 4. By way of further example, in one suchembodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 restrains growth ofthe electrode assembly 106 with a pressure on first and secondlongitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 (i.e., in the stacking direction D)that exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 in atleast one, or even both, of the two directions that are perpendicular tothe stacking direction D, by a factor of at least 5.

Similarly, in one embodiment, the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, of the primary growth constraintsystem 151 restrain growth of the electrode assembly 106 by exerting apressure on first and second opposing regions of the lateral surface 142of the electrode assembly 106 in a second direction orthogonal to thelongitudinal direction, such as first and second opposing surfaceregions along the vertical axis 148, 150, respectively (i.e., in avertical direction), that exceeds a pressure exerted by the first andsecond secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, on othersurfaces of the electrode assembly 106 that would be in a directionorthogonal to the second direction. That is, the first and secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, may exert apressure in a vertical direction (Z axis) that exceeds a pressuregenerated thereby in directions orthogonal thereto, such as thetransverse (X axis) and longitudinal (Y axis) directions. For example,in one such embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152restrains growth of the electrode assembly 106 with a pressure on firstand second opposing surface regions 148, 150, respectively (i.e., in thevertical direction), that exceeds the pressure maintained on theelectrode assembly 106 by the secondary growth constraint system 152 inat least one, or even both, of the two directions that are perpendicularthereto, by a factor of at least 3. By way of further example, in onesuch embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 restrainsgrowth of the electrode assembly 106 with a pressure on first and secondopposing surface regions 148, 150, respectively (i.e., in the verticaldirection), that exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrodeassembly 106 by the secondary growth constraint system 152 in at leastone, or even both, of the two directions that are perpendicular thereto,by a factor of at least 4. By way of further example, in one suchembodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 restrains growthof the electrode assembly 106 with a pressure on first and secondopposing surface regions 148, 150, respectively (i.e., in the verticaldirection), that exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrodeassembly 106 in at least one, or even both, of the two directions thatare perpendicular thereto, by a factor of at least 5.

In yet another embodiment, the first and second tertiary growthconstraints 157, 159, respectively, of the tertiary growth constraintsystem 155 restrain growth of the electrode assembly 106 by exerting apressure on first and second opposing regions of the lateral surface 142of the electrode assembly 106 in a direction orthogonal to thelongitudinal direction and the second direction, such as first andsecond opposing surface regions along the transverse axis 161, 163,respectively (i.e., in a transverse direction), that exceeds a pressureexerted by the tertiary growth constraint system 155 on other surfacesof the electrode assembly 106 that would be in a direction orthogonal tothe transverse direction. That is, the first and second tertiary growthconstraints 157, 159, respectively, may exert a pressure in a transversedirection (X axis) that exceeds a pressure generated thereby indirections orthogonal thereto, such as the vertical (Z axis) andlongitudinal (Y axis) directions. For example, in one such embodiment,the tertiary growth constraint system 155 restrains growth of theelectrode assembly 106 with a pressure on first and second opposingsurface regions 144, 146 (i.e., in the transverse direction) thatexceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 by thetertiary growth constraint system 155 in at least one, or even both, ofthe two directions that are perpendicular thereto, by a factor of atleast 3. By way of further example, in one such embodiment, the tertiarygrowth constraint system 155 restrains growth of the electrode assembly106 with a pressure on first and second opposing surface regions 144,146, respectively (i.e., in the transverse direction), that exceeds thepressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 by the tertiary growthconstraint system 155 in at least one, or even both, of the twodirections that are perpendicular thereto, by a factor of at least 4. Byway of further example, in one such embodiment, the tertiary growthconstraint system 155 restrains growth of the electrode assembly 106with a pressure on first and second opposing surface regions 144, 146,respectively (i.e., in the transverse direction), that exceeds thepressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 in at least one, oreven both, of the two directions that are perpendicular thereto, by afactor of at least 5.

In one embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108, which mayinclude the primary growth constraint system 151, the secondary growthconstraint system 152, and optionally the tertiary growth constraintsystem 155, is configured to exert pressure on the electrode assembly106 along two or more dimensions thereof (e.g., along the longitudinaland vertical directions, and optionally along the transverse direction),with a pressure being exerted along the longitudinal direction by theset of electrode constraints 108 being greater than any pressure(s)exerted by the set of electrode constraints 108 in any of the directionsorthogonal to the longitudinal direction (e.g., the Z and X directions).That is, when the pressure(s) exerted by the primary, secondary, andoptionally tertiary growth constraint systems 151, 152, 155,respectively, making up the set of electrode constraints 108 are summedtogether, the pressure exerted on the electrode assembly 106 along thelongitudinal axis exceeds the pressure(s) exerted on the electrodeassembly 106 in the directions orthogonal thereto. For example, in onesuch embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108 exerts a pressureon the first and second longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 (i.e., in thestacking direction D) that exceeds the pressure maintained on theelectrode assembly 106 by the set of electrode constraints 108 in atleast one or even both of the two directions that are perpendicular tothe stacking direction D, by a factor of at least 3. By way of furtherexample, in one such embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108exerts a pressure on first and second longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118(i.e., in the stacking direction D) that exceeds the pressure maintainedon the electrode assembly 106 by the set of electrode constraints 108 inat least one, or even both, of the two directions that are perpendicularto the stacking direction D by a factor of at least 4. By way of furtherexample, in one such embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108exerts a pressure on first and second longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118(i.e., in the stacking direction D) that exceeds the pressure maintainedon the electrode assembly 106 in at least one, or even both, of the twodirections that are perpendicular to the stacking direction D, by afactor of at least 5.

According to one embodiment, the first and second longitudinal endsurfaces 116, 118, respectively, have a combined surface area that isless than a predetermined amount of the overall surface area of theentire electrode assembly 106. For example, in one embodiment, theelectrode assembly 106 may have a geometric shape corresponding to thatof a rectangular prism with first and second longitudinal end surfaces116, 118, respectively, and a lateral surface 142 extending between theend surfaces 116, 118, respectively, that makes up the remaining surfaceof the electrode assembly 106, and that has opposing surface regions144, 146 in the X direction (i.e., the side surfaces of the rectangularprism) and opposing surface regions 148, 150 in the Z direction (i.e.,the top and bottom surfaces of the rectangular prism, wherein X, Y and Zare dimensions measured in directions corresponding to the X, Y, and Zaxes, respectively). The overall surface area is thus the sum of thesurface area covered by the lateral surface 142 (i.e., the surface areaof the opposing surfaces 144, 146, 148, and 150 in X and Z), added tothe surface area of the first and second longitudinal end surfaces 116,118, respectively. In accordance with one aspect of the presentdisclosure, the sum of the surface areas of the first and secondlongitudinal end surfaces 116, 118, respectively, is less than 33% ofthe surface area of the total surface of the electrode assembly 106. Forexample, in one such embodiment, the sum of the surface areas of thefirst and second longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118, respectively, isless than 25% of the surface area of the total surface of the electrodeassembly 106. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the sum ofthe surface areas of the first and second longitudinal end surfaces 116,118, respectively, is less than 20% of the surface area of the totalsurface of the electrode assembly. By way of further example, in oneembodiment, the sum of the surface areas of the first and secondlongitudinal end surfaces 116, 118, respectively, is less than 15% ofthe surface area of the total surface of the electrode assembly. By wayof further example, in one embodiment, the sum of the surface areas ofthe first and second longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118, respectively,is less than 10% of the surface area of the total surface of theelectrode assembly.

In yet another embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 is configured suchthat a surface area of a projection of the electrode assembly 106 in aplane orthogonal to the stacking direction (i.e., the longitudinaldirection), is smaller than the surface areas of projections of theelectrode assembly 106 onto other orthogonal planes. For example,referring to the electrode assembly 106 embodiment shown in FIG. 2A(e.g., a rectangular prism), it can be seen that surface area of aprojection of the electrode assembly 106 into a plane orthogonal to thestacking direction (i.e., the X-Z plane) corresponds to L_(EA)×H_(EA).Similarly, a projection of the electrode assembly 106 into the Z-Y planecorresponds to W_(EA)×H_(EA), and a projection of the electrode assembly106 into the X-Y plane corresponds to L_(EA)×W_(EA). Accordingly, theelectrode assembly 106 is configured such that the stacking directionintersects the plane in which the projection having the smallest surfacearea lies. Accordingly, in the embodiment in FIG. 2A, the electrodeassembly 106 is positioned such that the stacking direction intersectsthe X-Z plane in which the smallest surface area projectioncorresponding to H_(EA)×L_(EA) lies. That is, the electrode assembly ispositioned such that the projection having the smallest surface area(e.g., H_(EA)×L_(EA)) is orthogonal to the stacking direction.

In yet another embodiment, the secondary battery 102 can comprise aplurality of electrode assemblies 106 that are stacked together to forman electrode stack, and can be constrained by one or more sharedelectrode constraints. For example, in one embodiment, at least aportion of one or more of the primary growth constraint system 151 andthe secondary growth constraint system 152 can be shared by a pluralityof electrode assemblies 106 forming the electrode assembly stack. By wayof further example, in one embodiment, a plurality of electrodeassemblies forming an electrode assembly stack may be constrained in avertical direction by a secondary growth constraint system 152 having afirst secondary growth constraint 158 at a top electrode assembly 106 ofthe stack, and a second secondary growth constraint 160 at a bottomelectrode assembly 106 of the stack, such that the plurality ofelectrode assemblies 106 forming the stack are constrained in thevertical direction by the shared secondary growth constraint system.Similarly, portions of the primary growth constraint system 151 couldalso be shared. Accordingly, in one embodiment, similarly to the singleelectrode assembly described above, a surface area of a projection ofthe stack of electrode assemblies 106 in a plane orthogonal to thestacking direction (i.e., the longitudinal direction), is smaller thanthe surface areas of projections of the stack of electrode assemblies106 onto other orthogonal planes. That is, the plurality of electrodeassemblies 106 may be configured such that the stacking direction (i.e.,longitudinal direction) intersects and is orthogonal to a plane that hasa projection of the stack of electrode assemblies 106 that is thesmallest of all the other orthogonal projections of the electrodeassembly stack.

According to one embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 furthercomprises electrode structures 110 that are configured such that asurface area of a projection of the electrode structures 110 into aplane orthogonal to the stacking direction (i.e., the longitudinaldirection), is larger than the surface areas of projections of theelectrode structures 100 onto other orthogonal planes. For example,referring to the embodiments as shown in FIGS. 2 and 7, the electrodes110 can each be understood to have a length L_(ES) measured in thetransverse direction, a width W_(ES) measured in the longitudinaldirection, and a height H_(ES) measured in the vertical direction. Theprojection into the X-Z plane as shown in FIGS. 2 and 7 thus has asurface area L_(ES)×H_(ES), the projection into the Y-Z plane has asurface area W_(ES)×H_(ES), and the projection into the XY plane has asurface area L_(ES)×W_(ES). Of these, the plane corresponding to theprojection having the largest surface area is the one that is selectedto be orthogonal to the stacking direction. Similarly, the electrodes110 may also be configured such that a surface area of a projection ofthe electrode active material layer 132 into a plane orthogonal to thestacking direction is larger than the surface areas of projections ofthe electrode active material layer onto other orthogonal planes. Forexample, in the embodiments shown in FIGS. 2 and 7, the electrode activematerial layer may have a length L_(A) measured in the transversedirection, a width W_(A) measured in the longitudinal direction, and aheight H_(A) measured in the vertical direction, from the surface areasof projections can be calculated (L_(ES), L_(A), W_(ES), W_(A) H_(ES)and H_(A) may also correspond to the maximum of these dimensions, in acase where the dimensions of the electrode structure and/or electrodeactive material layer 132 vary along one or more axes). In oneembodiment, by positioning the electrode structures 110 such that theplane having the highest projection surface area of the electrodestructure 100 and/or electrode active material layer 132 is orthogonalto the stacking direction, a configuration can be achieved whereby thesurface of the electrode structure 110 having the greatest surface areaof electrode active material faces the direction of travel of thecarrier ions, and thus experiences the greatest growth during cyclingbetween charged and discharged states due to intercalation and/oralloying.

In one embodiment, the electrode structure 110 and electrode assembly106 can be configured such that the largest surface area projection ofthe electrode structure 110 and/or electrode active material layer 132,and the smallest surface area projection of the electrode assembly 106are simultaneously in a plane that is orthogonal to the stackingdirection. For example, in a case as shown in FIGS. 2 and 7, where theprojection of the electrode active material layer 132 in the X-Z plane(L_(A)×H_(A)) of the electrode active material layer 132 is the highest,the electrode structure 110 and/or electrode active material layer 132is positioned with respect to the smallest surface area projection ofthe electrode assembly (L_(EA)×H_(EA)) such the projection plane forboth projections is orthogonal to the stacking direction. That is, theplane having the greatest surface area projection of the electrodestructure 110 and/or electrode active material is parallel to (and/or inthe same plane with) the plane having the smallest surface areaprojection of the electrode assembly 106. In this way, according to oneembodiment, the surfaces of the electrode structures that are mostlikely to experience the highest volume growth, i.e., the surfaceshaving the highest content of electrode active material layer, and/orsurfaces that intersect (e.g., are orthogonal to) a direction of travelof carrier ions during charge/discharge of a secondary battery, face thesurfaces of the electrode assembly 106 having the lowest surface area.An advantage of providing such a configuration may be that the growthconstraint system used to constrain in this greatest direction ofgrowth, e.g. along the longitudinal axis, can be implemented with growthconstraints that themselves have a relatively small surface area, ascompared to the area of other surfaces of the electrode assembly 106,thereby reducing the volume required for implementing a constraintsystem to restrain growth of the electrode assembly.

In one embodiment, the constraint system 108 occupies a relatively lowvolume % of the combined volume of the electrode assembly 106 andconstraint system 108. That is, the electrode assembly 106 can beunderstood as having a volume bounded by its exterior surfaces (i.e.,the displacement volume), namely the volume enclosed by the first andsecond longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 and the lateral surface 42connecting the end surfaces. Portions of the constraint system 108 thatare external to the electrode assembly 106 (i.e., external to thelongitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 and the lateral surface), such aswhere first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 are locatedat the longitudinal ends 117, 119 of the electrode assembly 106, andfirst and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160 are at theopposing ends of the lateral surface 142, the portions of the constrainsystem 108 similarly occupy a volume corresponding to the displacementvolume of the constraint system portions. Accordingly, in oneembodiment, the external portions of the set of electrode constraints108, which can include external portions of the primary growthconstraint system 151 (i.e., any of the first and second primary growthconstraints 154, 156 and at least one primary connecting member that areexternal, or external portions thereof), as well as external portions ofthe secondary growth constraint system 152 (i.e., any of the first andsecond secondary growth constraints 158, 160 and at least one secondaryconnecting member that are external, or external portions thereof)occupies no more than 80% of the total combined volume of the electrodeassembly 106 and external portion of the set of electrode constraints108. By way of further example, in one embodiment the external portionsof the set of electrode constraints occupies no more than 60% of thetotal combined volume of the electrode assembly 106 and the externalportion of the set of electrode constraints. By way of yet a furtherexample, in one embodiment the external portion of the set of electrodeconstraints 106 occupies no more than 40% of the total combined volumeof the electrode assembly 106 and the external portion of the set ofelectrode constraints. By way of yet a further example, in oneembodiment the external portion of the set of electrode constraints 106occupies no more than 20% of the total combined volume of the electrodeassembly 106 and the external portion of the set of electrodeconstraints. In yet another embodiment, the external portion of theprimary growth constraint system 151 (i.e., any of the first and secondprimary growth constraints 154, 156 and at least one primary connectingmember that are external, or external portions thereof) occupies no morethan 40% of the total combined volume of the electrode assembly 106 andthe external portion of the primary growth constraint system 151. By wayof further example, in one embodiment the external portion of theprimary growth constraint system 151 occupies no more than 30% of thetotal combined volume of the electrode assembly 106 and the externalportion of the primary growth constraint system 151. By way of yet afurther example, in one embodiment the external portion of the primarygrowth constraint system 151 occupies no more than 20% of the totalcombined volume of the electrode assembly 106 and the external portionof the primary growth constraint system 151. By way of yet a furtherexample, in one embodiment the external portion of the primary growthconstraint system 151 occupies no more than 10% of the total combinedvolume of the electrode assembly 106 and the external portion of theprimary growth constraint system 151. In yet another embodiment, theexternal portion of the secondary growth constraint system 152 (i.e.,any of the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160 and atleast one secondary connecting member that are external, or externalportions thereof) occupies no more than 40% of the total combined volumeof the electrode assembly 106 and the external portion of the secondarygrowth constraint system 152. By way of further example, in oneembodiment, the external portion of the secondary growth constraintsystem 152 occupies no more than 30% of the total combined volume of theelectrode assembly 106 and the external portion of the secondary growthconstraint system 152. By way of yet another example, in one embodiment,the external portion of the secondary growth constraint system 152occupies no more than 20% of the total combined volume of the electrodeassembly 106 and the external portion of the secondary growth constraintsystem 152. By way of yet another example, in one embodiment, theexternal portion of the secondary growth constraint system 152 occupiesno more than 10% of the total combined volume of the electrode assembly106 and the external portion of the secondary growth constraint system152.

According to one embodiment, a rationale for the relatively low volumeoccupied by portions of the set of electrode constraints 108 can beunderstood by referring to the force schematics shown in FIGS. 8A and8B. FIG. 8A depicts an embodiment showing the forces exerted on thefirst and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 upon cycling of thesecondary battery 102, due to the increase in volume of the electrodeactive material layers 132. The arrows 198 b depict the forces exertedby the electrode active material layers 132 upon expansion thereof,where w shows the load applied to the first and second primary growthconstraints 154, 156, due to the growth of the electrode active materiallayers 132, and P shows the pressure applied to the first and secondprimary growth constraints 154, 156 as a result of the increase involume of the electrode active material layers 132. Similarly, FIG. 8Bdepicts an embodiment showing the forces exerted on the first and secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160 upon cycling of the secondarybattery 102, due to the increase in volume of the electrode activematerial layers 132. The arrows 198 a depict the forces exerted by theelectrode active material layers 132 upon expansion thereof, where wshows the load applied to the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, due to the growth of the electrode active materiallayers 132, and P shows the pressure applied to the first and secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160 as a result of the increase involume of the electrode active material layers 132. While the electrodeactive material expands isotropically (i.e., in all directions), duringcycling of the secondary battery, and thus the pressure P in eachdirection is the same, the load w exerted in each direction isdifferent. By way of explanation, referring to the embodiment depictedin FIGS. 8A and 8B, it can be understood that the load in the X-Z planeon a first or secondary primary growth constraint 154, 156 isproportional to P×L_(ES)×H_(ES), where P is the pressure exerted due tothe expansion of the electrode active material layers 132 on the primarygrowth constraints 154, 156, L_(ES) is length of the electrodestructures 110 in the transverse direction, and H_(ES) is the height ofthe electrode structures 110 in the vertical direction. Similarly, theload in the X-Y plane on a first or second secondary growth constraint158, 160 is proportional to P×L_(ES)×W_(ES), where P is the pressureexerted due to the expansion of the electrode active material layers 132on the secondary growth constraints 158, 160, L_(ES) is length of theelectrode structures 110 in the transverse direction, and W_(ES) is thewidth of the electrode structures 110 in the longitudinal direction. Ina case where a tertiary constraint system is provided, the load in theY-Z plane on a first or secondary tertiary growth constraint 157, 159 isproportional to P×H_(ES)×W_(ES), where P is the pressure exerted due tothe expansion of the electrode active material layers 132 on thetertiary growth constraints 157, 159, H_(ES) is height of the electrodestructures 110 in the vertical direction, and W_(ES) is the width of theelectrode structures in the longitudinal direction. Accordingly, in acase where L_(ES) is greater than both W_(ES) and H_(ES), the load inthe Y-Z plane will be the least, and in a case where H_(ES)>W_(ES), theload in the X-Y plane will be less than the load in the X-Z plane,meaning that the X-Z plane has the highest load to be accommodated amongthe orthogonal planes.

Furthermore, according to one embodiment, if a primary constraint isprovided in the X-Z plane in a case where the load in that plane is thegreatest, as opposed to providing a primary constraint in the X-Y plane,then the primary constraint in the X-Z plane may require a much lowervolume that the primary constraint would be required to have if it werein the X-Y plane. This is because if the primary constraint were in theX-Y plane instead of the X-Z plane, then the constraint would berequired to be much thicker in order to have the stiffness againstgrowth that would be required. In particular, as is described herein infurther detail below, as the distance between primary connecting membersincreases, the buckling deflection can also increase, and the stressalso increases. For example, the equation governing the deflection dueto bending of the primary growth constraints 154, 156 can be written as:δ=60wL ⁴ /Eh ³

where w=total distributed load applied on the primary growth constraint154, 156 due to the electrode expansion; L=distance between the primaryconnecting members 158, 160 along the vertical direction; E=elasticmodulus of the primary growth constraints 154, 156, and h=thickness(width) of the primary growth constraints 154, 156. The stress on theprimary growth constraints 154, 156 due to the expansion of theelectrode active material 132 can be calculated using the followingequation:σ=3wL ²/4h ²

where w=total distributed load applied on the primary growth constraints154, 156 due to the expansion of the electrode active material layers132; L=distance between primary connecting members 158, 160 along thevertical direction; and h=thickness (width) of the primary growthconstraints 154, 156. Thus, if the primary growth constraints were inthe X-Y plane, and if the primary connecting members were much furtherapart (e.g., at longitudinal ends) than they would otherwise be if theprimary constraint were in the X-Z plane, this can mean that the primarygrowth constraints would be required to be thicker and thus occupy alarger volume that they otherwise would if they were in the X-Z plane.

According to one embodiment, a projection of the members of theelectrode and counter-electrode populations onto first and secondlongitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 circumscribes a first and secondprojected areas 2002 a, 2002 b. In general, first and second projectedareas 2002 a, 2002 b will typically comprise a significant fraction ofthe surface area of the first and second longitudinal end surfaces 122,124, respectively. For example, in one embodiment the first and secondprojected areas each comprise at least 50% of the surface area of thefirst and second longitudinal end surfaces, respectively. By way offurther example, in one such embodiment the first and second projectedareas each comprise at least 75% of the surface area of the first andsecond longitudinal end surfaces, respectively. By way of furtherexample, in one such embodiment the first and second projected areaseach comprise at least 90% of the surface area of the first and secondlongitudinal end surfaces, respectively.

In certain embodiments, the longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 of theelectrode assembly 106 will be under a significant compressive load. Forexample, in some embodiments, each of the longitudinal end surfaces 116,118 of the electrode assembly 106 will be under a compressive load of atleast 0.7 kPa (e.g., averaged over the total surface area of each of thelongitudinal end surfaces, respectively). For example, in oneembodiment, each of the longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 of theelectrode assembly 106 will be under a compressive load of at least 1.75kPa (e.g., averaged over the total surface area of each of thelongitudinal end surfaces, respectively). By way of further example, inone such embodiment, each of the longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 ofthe electrode assembly 106 will be under a compressive load of at least2.8 kPa (e.g., averaged over the total surface area of each of thelongitudinal end surfaces, respectively). By way of further example, inone such embodiment, each of the longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 ofthe electrode assembly 106 will be under a compressive load of at least3.5 kPa (e.g., averaged over the total surface area of each of thelongitudinal end surfaces, respectively). By way of further example, inone such embodiment, each of the longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 ofthe electrode assembly 106 will be under a compressive load of at least5.25 kPa (e.g., averaged over the total surface area of each of thelongitudinal end surfaces, respectively). By way of further example, inone such embodiment, each of the longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 ofthe electrode assembly 106 will be under a compressive load of at least7 kPa (e.g., averaged over the total surface area of each of thelongitudinal end surfaces, respectively). By way of further example, inone such embodiment, each of the longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 ofthe electrode assembly 106 will be under a compressive load of at least8.75 kPa (e.g., averaged over the total surface area of each of thelongitudinal end surfaces, respectively). In general, however, thelongitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 of the electrode assembly 106 will beunder a compressive load of no more than about 10 kPa (e.g., averagedover the total surface area of each of the longitudinal end surfaces,respectively). The regions of the longitudinal end surface of theelectrode assembly that are coincident with the projection of members ofthe electrode and counter-electrode populations onto the longitudinalend surfaces (i.e., the projected surface regions) may also be under theabove compressive loads (as averaged over the total surface area of eachprojected surface region, respectively). In each of the foregoingexemplary embodiments, the longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 of theelectrode assembly 106 will experience such compressive loads when anenergy storage device 100 having the electrode assembly 106 is chargedto at least about 80% of its rated capacity.

According to one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152is capable of restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 in thevertical direction (Z direction) by applying a restraining force at apredetermined value, and without excessive skew of the growthrestraints. For example, in one embodiment, the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may restrain growth of the electrode assembly 106in the vertical direction by applying a restraining force to opposingvertical regions 148, 150 of greater than 1000 psi and a skew of lessthan 0.2 mm/m. By way of further example, in one embodiment, thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may restrain growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the vertical direction by applying arestraining force to opposing vertical regions 148, 150 with less than5% displacement at less than or equal to 10,000 psi and a skew of lessthan 0.2 mm/m. By way of further example, in one embodiment, thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may restrain growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the vertical direction by applying arestraining force to opposing vertical regions 148, 150 with less than3% displacement at less than or equal to 10,000 psi and a skew of lessthan 0.2 mm/m. By way of further example, in one embodiment, thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may restrain growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the vertical direction by applying arestraining force to opposing vertical regions 148, 150 with less than1% displacement at less than or equal to 10,000 psi and a skew of lessthan 0.2 mm/m. By way of further example, in one embodiment, thesecondary growth constraint system 152 may restrain growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in the vertical direction by applying arestraining force to opposing vertical regions 148, 150 in the verticaldirection with less than 15% displacement at less than or equal to10,000 psi and a skew of less than 0.2 mm/m after 50 battery cycles. Byway of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may restrain growth of the electrode assembly 106in the vertical direction by applying a restraining force to opposingvertical regions 148, 150 with less than 5% displacement at less than orequal to 10,000 psi and a skew of less than 0.2 mm/m after 150 batterycycles.

Referring now to FIG. 5, an embodiment of an electrode assembly 106 witha set of electrode constraints 108 is shown, with a cross-section takenalong the line A-A′ as shown in FIG. 1. In the embodiment shown in FIG.5, the primary growth constraint system 151 can comprise first andsecond primary growth constraints 154, 156, respectively, at thelongitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 of the electrode assembly 106, andthe secondary growth constraint system 152 comprises first and secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160 at the opposing first and secondsurface regions 148, 150 of the lateral surface 142 of the electrodeassembly 106. According to this embodiment, the first and second primarygrowth constraints 154, 156 can serve as the at least one secondaryconnecting member 166 to connect the first and second secondary growthconstrains 158, 160 and maintain the growth constraints in tension withone another in the second direction (e.g., vertical direction) that isorthogonal to the longitudinal direction. However, additionally and/oralternatively, the secondary growth constraint system 152 can compriseat least one secondary connecting member 166 that is located at a regionother than the longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 of the electrodeassembly 106. Also, the at least one secondary connecting member 166 canbe understood to act as at least one of a first and second primarygrowth constraint 154, 156 that is internal to the longitudinal ends116, 118 of the electrode assembly, and that can act in conjunction witheither another internal primary growth restraint and/or a primary growthrestraint at a longitudinal end 116, 118 of the electrode assembly 106to restrain growth. Referring to the embodiment shown in FIG. 5, asecondary connecting member 166 can be provided that is spaced apartalong the longitudinal axis away from the first and second longitudinalend surfaces 116, 118, respectively, of the electrode assembly 106, suchas toward a central region of the electrode assembly 106. The secondaryconnecting member 166 can connect the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, at an interior position from theelectrode assembly end surfaces 116, 118, and may be under tensionbetween the secondary growth constraints 158, 160 at that position. Inone embodiment, the secondary connecting member 166 that connects thesecondary growth constraints 158, 160 at an interior position from theend surfaces 116, 118 is provided in addition to one or more secondaryconnecting members 166 provided at the electrode assembly end surfaces116, 118, such as the secondary connecting members 166 that also serveas primary growth constraints 154, 156 at the longitudinal end surfaces116, 118. In another embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system152 comprises one or more secondary connecting members 166 that connectwith first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, at interior positions that are spaced apart from thelongitudinal end surfaces 116, 118, with or without secondary connectingmembers 166 at the longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118. The interiorsecondary connecting members 166 can also be understood to act as firstand second primary growth constraints 154, 156, according to oneembodiment. For example, in one embodiment, at least one of the interiorsecondary connecting members 166 can comprise at least a portion of anelectrode or counter electrode structure 110, 112, as described infurther detail below.

More specifically, with respect to the embodiment shown in FIG. 5,secondary growth constraint system 152 may include a first secondarygrowth constraint 158 that overlies an upper region 148 of the lateralsurface 142 of electrode assembly 106, and an opposing second secondarygrowth constraint 160 that overlies a lower region 150 of the lateralsurface 142 of electrode assembly 106, the first and second secondarygrowth constraints 158, 160 being separated from each other in thevertical direction (i.e., along the Z-axis). Additionally, secondarygrowth constraint system 152 may further include at least one interiorsecondary connecting member 166 that is spaced apart from thelongitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 of the electrode assembly 106. Theinterior secondary connecting member 166 may be aligned parallel to theZ axis and connects the first and second secondary growth constraints158, 160, respectively, to maintain the growth constraints in tensionwith one another, and to form at least a portion of the secondaryconstraint system 152. In one embodiment, the at least one interiorsecondary connecting member 166, either alone or with secondaryconnecting members 166 located at the longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118of the electrode assembly 106, may be under tension between the firstand secondary growth constraints 158, 160 in the vertical direction(i.e., along the Z axis), during repeated charge and/or discharge of anenergy storage device 100 or a secondary battery 102 having theelectrode assembly 106, to reduce growth of the electrode assembly 106in the vertical direction. Furthermore, in the embodiment as shown inFIG. 5, the set of electrode constraints 108 further comprises a primarygrowth constraint system 151 having first and second primary growthconstraints 154, 156, respectively, at the longitudinal ends 117, 119 ofthe electrode assembly 106, that are connected by first and secondprimary connecting members 162, 164, respectively, at the upper andlower lateral surface regions 148, 150, respectively, of the electrodeassembly 106. In one embodiment, the secondary interior connectingmember 166 can itself be understood as acting in concert with one ormore of the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156,respectively, to exert a constraining pressure on each portion of theelectrode assembly 106 lying in the longitudinal direction between thesecondary interior connecting member 166 and the longitudinal ends 117,119 of the electrode assembly 106 where the first and second primarygrowth constraints 154, 156, respectively, can be located.

In one embodiment, one or more of the primary growth constraint system151 and secondary growth constraint system 152 includes first andsecondary primary growth constraints 154, 156, respectively, and/orfirst and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively,that include a plurality of constraint members. That is, each of theprimary growth constraints 154, 156 and/or secondary growth constraints158, 160 may be a single unitary member, or a plurality of members maybe used to make up one or more of the growth constraints. For example,in one embodiment, the first and second secondary growth constraints158, 160, respectively, can comprise single constraint members extendingalong the upper and lower surface regions 148, 150, respectively, of theelectrode assembly lateral surface 142. In another embodiment, the firstand second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, comprisea plurality of members extending across the opposing surface regions148, 150, of the lateral surface. Similarly, the primary growthconstraints 154, 156 may also be made of a plurality of members, or caneach comprise a single unitary member at each electrode assemblylongitudinal end 117, 119. To maintain tension between each of theprimary growth constraints 154, 156 and secondary growth constraints158, 160, the connecting members (e.g., 162, 164, 165, 166) are providedto connect the one or plurality of members comprising the growthconstraints to the opposing growth constraint members in a manner thatexerts pressure on the electrode assembly 106 between the growthconstraints.

In one embodiment, the at least one secondary connecting member 166 ofthe secondary growth constraint system 152 forms areas of contact 168,170 with the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, to maintain the growth constraints in tension with oneanother. The areas of contact 168, 170 are those areas where thesurfaces at the ends 172, 174 of the at least one secondary connectingmember 166 touches and/or contacts the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, such as where a surface of an end ofthe at least one secondary connecting member 166 is adhered or glued tothe first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively. The areas of contact 168, 170 may be at each end 172, 174and may extend across a surface area of the first and second secondarygrowth constraints 158, 160, to provide good contact therebetween. Theareas of contact 168, 170 provide contact in the longitudinal direction(Y axis) between the second connecting member 166 and the growthconstraints 158, 160, and the areas of contact 168, 170 can also extendinto the transverse direction (X-axis) to provide good contact andconnection to maintain the first and second secondary growth constraints158, 160 in tension with one another. In one embodiment, the areas ofcontact 168, 170 provide a ratio of the total area of contact (e.g., thesum of all areas 168, and the sum of all areas 170) of the one or moresecondary connecting members 166 in the longitudinal direction (Y axis)with the growth constraints 158, 160, per W_(EA) of the electrodeassembly 106 in the longitudinal direction that is at least 1%. Forexample, in one embodiment, a ratio of the total area of contact of theone or more secondary connecting members 166 in the longitudinaldirection (Y axis) with the growth constraints 158, 160, per W_(EA) ofthe electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction is at least 2%.By way of further example, in one embodiment, a ratio of the total areaof contact of the one or more secondary connecting members 166 in thelongitudinal direction (Y axis) with the growth constraints 158, 160,per W_(EA) of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction,is at least 5%. By way of further example, in one embodiment, a ratio ofthe total area of contact of the one or more secondary connectingmembers 166 in the longitudinal direction (Y axis) with the growthconstraints 158, 160, per W_(EA) of the electrode assembly 106 in thelongitudinal direction, is at least 10%. By way of further example, inone embodiment, a ratio of the total area of contact of the one or moresecondary connecting members 166 in the longitudinal direction (Y axis)with the growth constraints 158, 160, per W_(EA) of the electrodeassembly 106 in the longitudinal direction, is at least 25%. By way offurther example, in one embodiment, a ratio of the total area of contactof the one or more secondary connecting members 166 in the longitudinaldirection (Y axis) with the growth constraints 158, 160, per W_(EA) ofthe electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction, is at least50%. In general, a ratio of the total area of contact of the one or moresecondary connecting members 166 in the longitudinal direction (Y axis)with the growth constraints 158, 160, per W_(EA) of the electrodeassembly 106 in the longitudinal direction, will be less than 100%, suchas less than 90%, and even less than 75%, as the one or more connectingmembers 166 typically do not have an area of contact 168, 170 thatextends across the entire longitudinal axis. However, in one embodiment,an area of contact 168, 170 of the secondary connecting members 166 withthe growth constraints 158, 160, may extend across a significant portionof the transverse axis (X axis), and may even extend across the entireL_(EA) of the electrode assembly 106 in the transverse direction. Forexample, a ratio of the total area of contact (e.g., the sum of allareas 168, and the sum of all areas 170) of the one or more secondaryconnecting members 166 in the transverse direction (X axis) with thegrowth constraints 158, 160, per L_(EA) of the electrode assembly 106 inthe transverse direction, may be at least about 50%. By way of furtherexample, a ratio of the total area of contact of the one or moresecondary connecting members 166 in the transverse direction (X axis)with the growth constraints 158, 160, per L_(EA) of the electrodeassembly 106 in the transverse direction (X-axis), may be at least about75%. By way of further example, a ratio of the total area of contact ofthe one or more secondary connecting members 166 in the transversedirection (X axis) with the growth constraints 158, 160, per L_(EA) ofthe electrode assembly 106 in the transverse direction (X axis), may beat least about 90%. By way of further example, a ratio of the total areaof contact of the one or more secondary connecting members 166 in thetransverse direction (X axis) with the growth constraints 158, 160, perL_(EA) of the electrode assembly 106 in the transverse direction (Xaxis), may be at least about 95%.

According to one embodiment, the areas of contact 168, 170 between theone or more secondary connecting members 166 and the first and secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, are sufficientlylarge to provide for adequate hold and tension between the growthconstraints 158, 160 during cycling of an energy storage device 100 or asecondary battery 102 having the electrode assembly 106. For example,the areas of contact 168, 170 may form an area of contact with eachgrowth constraint 158, 160 that makes up at least 2% of the surface areaof the lateral surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106, such as atleast 10% of the surface area of the lateral surface 142 of theelectrode assembly 106, and even at least 20% of the surface area of thelateral surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106. By way of furtherexample, the areas of contact 168, 170 may form an area of contact witheach growth constraint 158, 160 that makes up at least 35% of thesurface area of the lateral surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106,and even at least 40% of the surface area of the lateral surface 142 ofthe electrode assembly 106. For example, for an electrode assembly 106having upper and lower opposing surface regions 148, 150, respectively,the at least one secondary connecting member 166 may form areas ofcontact 168, 170 with the growth constraints 158, 160 along at least 5%of the surface area of the upper and lower opposing surface regions 148,150, respectively, such as along at least 10% of the surface area of theupper and lower opposing surface regions 148, 150, respectively, andeven at least 20% of the surface area of the upper and lower opposingsurface regions 148, 150, respectively. By way of further example, anelectrode assembly 106 having upper and lower opposing surface regions148, 150, respectively, the at least one secondary connecting member 166may form areas of contact 168, 170 with the growth constraints 158, 160along at least 40% of the surface area of the upper and lower opposingsurface regions 148, 150, respectively, such as along at least 50% ofthe surface area of the upper and lower opposing surface regions 148,150, respectively. By forming a contact between the at least oneconnecting member 166 and the growth constraints 158, 160 that makes upa minimum surface area relative to a total surface area of the electrodeassembly 106, proper tension between the growth constraints 158, 160 canbe provided. Furthermore, according to one embodiment, the areas ofcontact 168, 170 can be provided by a single secondary connecting member166, or the total area of contact may be the sum of multiple areas ofcontact 168, 170 provided by a plurality of secondary connecting members166, such as one or a plurality of secondary connecting members 166located at longitudinal ends 117, 119 of the electrode assembly 106,and/or one or a plurality of interior secondary connecting members 166that are spaced apart from the longitudinal ends 117, 119 of theelectrode assembly 106.

Further still, in one embodiment, the primary and secondary growthconstraint systems 151, 152, respectively, (and optionally the tertiarygrowth constraint system) are capable of restraining growth of theelectrode assembly 106 in both the longitudinal direction and the seconddirection orthogonal to the longitudinal direction, such as the verticaldirection (Z axis) (and optionally in the third direction, such as alongthe X axis), to restrain a volume growth % of the electrode assembly.

In certain embodiments, one or more of the primary and secondary growthconstraint systems 151, 152, respectively, comprises a member havingpores therein, such as a member made of a porous material. For example,referring to FIG. 6A depicting a top view of a secondary growthconstraint 158 over an electrode assembly 106, the secondary growthconstraint 158 can comprise pores 176 that permit electrolyte to passtherethrough, so as to access an electrode assembly 106 that is at leastpartially covered by the secondary growth constraint 158. In oneembodiment, the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, have the pores 176 therein. In another embodiment, each ofthe first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156, respectively,and the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, have the pores 176 therein. In yet another embodiment,only one or only a portion of the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, contain the pores therein. In yet afurther embodiment, one or more of the first and second primaryconnecting members 162, 164, respectively, and the at least onesecondary connecting member 166 contains pores therein. Providing thepores 176 may be advantageous, for example, when the energy storagedevice 100 or secondary battery 102 contains a plurality of electrodeassemblies 106 stacked together in the battery enclosure 104, to permitelectrolyte to flow between the different electrode assemblies 106 in,for example, the secondary battery 102 as shown in the embodimentdepicted in FIG. 20. For example, in one embodiment, a porous membermaking up at least a portion of the primary and secondary growthconstraint system 151, 152, respectively, may have a void fraction of atleast 0.25. By way of further example, in some embodiments, a porousmember making up at least a portion of the primary and secondary growthconstraint systems 151, 152, respectively, may have a void fraction ofat least 0.375. By way of further example, in some embodiments, a porousmember making up at least a portion of the primary and secondary growthconstraint systems 151, 152, respectively, may have a void fraction ofat least 0.5. By way of further example, in some embodiments, a porousmember making up at least a portion of the primary and secondary growthconstraint systems 151, 152, respectively, may have a void fraction ofat least 0.625. By way of further example, in some embodiments, a porousmember making up at least a portion of the primary and secondary growthconstraint systems 151, 152, respectively, may have a void fraction ofat least 0.75.

In one embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108 may be assembledand secured to restrain growth of the electrode assembly 106 by at leastone of adhering, bonding, and/or gluing components of the primary growthconstraint system 151 to components of the secondary growth constraintsystem 152. For example, components of the primary growth constraintsystem 151 may be glued, welded, bonded, or otherwise adhered andsecured to components of the secondary growth constraint system 152. Forexample, as shown in FIG. 4A, the first and second primary growthconstraints 154, 156, respectively, can be adhered to first and secondprimary connecting members 162, 164, respectively, that may also serveas first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively.Conversely, the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 150,respectively, can be adhered to at least one secondary connecting member166 that serves as at least one of the first and second primary growthconstraints 154, 156, respectively, such as growth constraints at thelongitudinal ends 117, 119 of the electrode assembly 106. Referring toFIG. 5, the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, can also be adhered to at least one secondary connectingmember 166 that is an interior connecting member 166 spaced apart fromthe longitudinal ends 117, 119. In one embodiment, by securing portionsof the primary and secondary growth constraint systems 151, 152,respectively, to one another, the cooperative restraint of the electrodeassembly 106 growth can be provided.

FIGS. 6A-6D illustrate embodiments for securing one or more of the firstand second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, to oneor more secondary connecting members 166. FIGS. 6A-6D provide a top viewof an embodiment of the electrode assembly 106 having the firstsecondary growth constraint 158 over an upper surface region 148 of thelateral surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106. Also shown are firstand second primary growth constraints 154, 156, respectively, spacedapart along a longitudinal axis (Y axis). A secondary connecting member166 which may correspond to at least a part of an electrode structure110 and/or counter electrode structure 112 is also shown. In theembodiment as shown, the first secondary growth constraint 158 has pores176 therein to allow electrolyte and carrier ions to reach the electrode110 and counter-electrode 112 structures. As described above, in certainembodiments, the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156,respectively, can serve as the at least one secondary connecting member166 to connect the first and second secondary growth constraints 158,160, respectively. Thus, in the version as shown, the first and secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, can be connected atthe periphery of the electrode assembly 106 to the first and secondprimary growth constraints 154, 156, respectively. However, in oneembodiment, the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, can also be connected via a secondary connecting member166 that is an interior secondary connecting member 166. In the versionas shown, the first secondary growth constraint 158 comprises bondedregions 178 where the growth constraint 158 is bonded to an underlyinginterior secondary connecting member 166, and further comprisesnon-bonded regions 180 where the growth constraint 158 is not bonded toan underlying secondary connecting member 166, so as to provide areas ofcontact 168 between the growth constraint 158 and underlying secondaryconnecting member 166 in the form of columns of bonded regions 178 thatalternate with areas of non-bonded regions 180. In one embodiment, thenon-bonded regions 180 further contain open pores 176 where electrolyteand carrier ions can pass. According to one embodiment, the first andsecond secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, are adheredto a secondary connecting member 166 that comprises at least a portionof an electrode 110 or counter electrode 112 structure, or otherinterior structure of the electrode assembly 106. The first and secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, in one embodiment,can be adhered to the top and bottom ends of the counter-electrodestructures 112 or other interior structures forming the secondaryconnecting member 166, to form columns of adhered areas 178corresponding to where the constraint is adhered to a counter-electrode112 or other interior structure, and columns of non-adhered areas 180between the counter-electrode 112 or other interior structures.Furthermore, the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, may be bonded or adhered to the counter-electrodestructure 112 or other structure forming the at least one secondaryconnecting member 166 such that pores 176 remain open at least in thenon-bonded areas 180, and may also be adhered such that pores 176 in thebonded regions 178 can remain relatively open to allow electrolyte andcarrier ions to pass therethrough.

In yet another embodiment as shown in FIG. 6B, the first and secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, are connected atthe periphery of the electrode assembly 106 to the first and secondprimary growth constraints 154, 156, respectively, and may also beconnected via a secondary connecting member 166 that is an interiorsecondary connecting member 166. In the version as shown, the firstsecondary growth constraint 158 comprises bonded regions 178 where thegrowth constraint 158 is bonded to an underlying interior secondaryconnecting member 166, and further comprises non-bonded regions 180where the growth constraint 158 is not bonded to an underlying secondaryconnecting member 166, so as to provide areas of contact 168 between thegrowth constraint 158 and underlying secondary connecting member 166 inthe form of rows of bonded regions 178 that alternate with areas ofnon-bonded regions 180. These bonded and non-bonded regions 178, 180,respectively, in this embodiment can extend across a dimension of thesecondary connecting member 166, which may be in the transversedirection (X axis) as shown in FIG. 6B, as opposed to in thelongitudinal direction (Y axis) as in FIG. 6A. Alternatively, the bondedand non-bonded regions 178, 180, respectively, can extend across bothlongitudinal and transverse directions in a predetermined pattern. Inone embodiment, the non-bonded regions 180 further contain open pores176 where electrolyte and carrier ions can pass. The first and secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, can in oneembodiment, be adhered to the top and bottom ends of thecounter-electrode structures 112 or other interior structures formingthe secondary connecting member 166, to form rows of adhered areas 178corresponding to where the growth constraint is adhered to acounter-electrode 112 or other interior structure, and areas ofnon-adhered areas 180 between the counter-electrode 112 or otherinterior structures. Furthermore, the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, may be bonded or adhered to thecounter-electrode structure 112 or other structure forming the at leastone secondary connecting member 166 such that pores 176 remain open atleast in the non-bonded areas 180, and may also be adhered such thatpores 176 in the bonded regions 178 can remain relatively open to allowelectrolyte and carrier ions to pass therethrough.

In yet another embodiment as shown in FIG. 6C, an alternativeconfiguration for connection of the first and second secondary growthconstraint members 158, 160, respectively, to the at least one secondaryconnecting member 166 is shown. More specifically, the bonded andnon-bonded regions 178, 180, respectively, of the secondary growthconstraints 158, 160 are shown to be symmetric about an axis of adhesionA_(G) located towards the center of the electrode assembly 106 in thelongitudinal direction (Y axis). As shown in this embodiment, the firstand second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, areattached to the ends of secondary connecting members 166 that comprisean electrode 110, counter-electrode 112, or other interior electrodeassembly structure, but the columns of bonded and non-bonded areas arenot of equal size. That is, the growth constraints 158, 160 can beselectively bonded to interior secondary connecting members 166 in analternating or other sequence, such that the amount of non-bonded area180 exceeds the amount of bonded area 178, for example, to provide foradequate numbers of pores 176 open for passage of electrolytetherethrough. That is, the first and second secondary growth constraints158, 160, respectively, may be bonded to every other counter-electrode112 or other interior structure making up the secondary connectingmembers 166, or to one of every 1+n structures (e.g., counter-electrodes112), according to an area of the bonded to non-bonded region to beprovided.

FIG. 6D illustrates yet another embodiment of an alternativeconfiguration for connection of the first and second secondary growthconstraint members 158, 160, respectively, to the at least one secondaryconnecting member 166. In this version, the bonded and non-bondedregions 178, 180, respectively, of the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, form an asymmetric pattern ofcolumns about the axis of adhesion A_(G). That is, the first and secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, can be adhered tothe secondary connecting member 166 corresponding to the electrode 110or counter-electrode 112 structure or other internal structure in apattern that is non-symmetric, such as by skipping adhesion to interiorstructures according to a random or other non-symmetric pattern. In thepattern in the embodiment as shown, the bonded and non-bonded regions178, 180, respectively, form alternating columns with different widthsthat are not symmetric about the axis of adhesion A_(G). Furthermore,while an axis of adhesion A_(G) is shown herein as lying in alongitudinal direction (Y axis), the axis of adhesion A_(G) may also liealong the transverse direction (X axis), or there may be two axes ofadhesion along the longitudinal and transverse directions, about whichthe patterns of the bonded and non-bonded regions 178, 180,respectively, can be formed. Similarly, for each pattern describedand/or shown with respect to FIGS. 6A-6D, it is understood that apattern shown along the longitudinal direction (Y axis) could instead beformed along the transverse direction (X axis), or vice versa, or acombination of patterns in both directions can be formed.

In one embodiment, an area of a bonded region 178 of the first or secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, along any secondaryconnecting member 166, and/or along at least one of the first or secondprimary growth constraints 154, 156, respectively, to a total area ofthe bonded and non-bonded regions along the constraint, is at least 50%,such as at least 75%, and even at least 90%, such as 100%. In anotherembodiment, the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, can be adhered to a secondary connecting member 166corresponding to an electrode 110 or counter-electrode 112 structure orother interior structure of the electrode assembly 106 in such a waythat the pores 176 in the bonded regions 178 remain open. That is, thefirst and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively,can be bonded to the secondary connecting member 166 such that the pores176 in the growth constraints are not occluded by any adhesive or othermeans used to adhere the growth constraint(s) to the connectingmember(s). According to one embodiment, the first and second secondarygrowth constraints 158, 160, respectively, are connected to the at leastone secondary connecting members 166 to provide an open area having thepores 176 of at least 5% of the area of the growth constraints 158, 160,and even an open area having the pores 176 of at least 10% of the areaof the growth constraints 158, 160, and even an open area having thepores 176 of at least 25% of the area of the growth constraints 158,160, such as an open area having the pores 176 of at least 50% of thearea of the growth constraints 158, 160.

While the embodiments described above may be characterized with thepores 176 aligned as columns along the Y axis, it will be appreciated bythose of skill in the art that the pores 176 may be characterized asbeing oriented in rows along the X axis in FIGS. 6A-6D, as well, and theadhesive or other means of adhesion may be applied horizontally or alongthe X axis to assemble the set of electrode constraints 108.Furthermore, the adhesive or other bonding means may be applied to yieldmesh-like air pores 176. Further, the axis of adhesion A_(G), asdescribed above, may also be oriented horizontally, or along the X axis,to provide analogous symmetric and asymmetric adhesion and/or bondingpatterns.

Further, while the pores 176 and non-bonded regions 180 have beendescribed above as being aligned in columns along the Y axis and in rowsalong the X axis (i.e., in a linear fashion), it has been furthercontemplated that the pores 176 and/or non-bonded regions 180 may bearranged in a non-linear fashion. For example, in certain embodiments,the pores 176 may be distributed throughout the surface of the first andsecond secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, in anon-organized or random fashion. Accordingly, in one embodiment,adhesive or other adhesion means may be applied in any fashion, so longas the resulting structure has adequate pores 176 that are notexcessively occluded, and contains the non-bonded regions 180 having thenon-occluded pores 176.

Secondary Constraint System Sub-Architecture

According to one embodiment, as discussed above, one or more of thefirst and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively,can be connected together via a secondary connecting member 166 that isa part of an interior structure of the electrode assembly 106, such as apart of an electrode 110 and/or counter-electrode structure 112. In oneembodiment, by providing connection between the constraints viastructures within the electrode assembly 106, a tightly constrainedstructure can be realized that adequately compensates for strainproduced by growth of the electrode structure 110. For example, in oneembodiment, the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, may constrain growth in a direction orthogonal to thelongitudinal direction, such as the vertical direction, by being placedin tension with one another via connection through a connecting member166 that is a part of an electrode 110 or counter-electrode structure112. In yet a further embodiment, growth of an electrode structure 110(e.g., an anode structure) can be countered by connection of thesecondary growth constraints 158, 160 through a counter-electrodestructure 112 (e.g., cathode) that serves as the secondary connectingmember 166.

In general, in certain embodiments, components of the primary growthconstraint system 151 and the secondary growth constraint system 152 maybe attached to the electrode 110 and/or counter-electrode structures112, respectively, within an electrode assembly 106, and components ofthe secondary growth constraint system 152 may also be embodied as theelectrode 110 and/or counter-electrode structures 112, respectively,within an electrode assembly 106, not only to provide effectiverestraint but also to more efficiently utilize the volume of theelectrode assembly 106 without excessively increasing the size of anenergy storage device 110 or a secondary battery 102 having theelectrode assembly 106. For example, in one embodiment, the primarygrowth constraint system 151 and/or secondary growth constraint system152 may be attached to one or more electrode structures 110. By way offurther example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system151 and/or secondary growth constraint system 152 may be attached to oneor more counter-electrode structures 112. By way of further example, incertain embodiments, the at least one secondary connecting member 166may be embodied as the population of electrode structures 110. By way offurther example, in certain embodiments, the at least one secondaryconnecting member 166 may be embodied as the population ofcounter-electrode structures 112.

Referring now to FIG. 7, a Cartesian coordinate system is shown forreference having a vertical axis (Z axis), a longitudinal axis (Y axis),and a transverse axis (X axis); wherein the X axis is oriented as comingout of the plane of the page; and a designation of the stackingdirection D, as described above, co-parallel with the Y axis. Morespecifically, FIG. 7 shows a cross section, along the line A-A′ as inFIG. 1, of a set of electrode constraints 108, including one embodimentof both a primary growth constraint system 151 and one embodiment of asecondary growth constraint system 152. Primary growth constraint system151 includes a first primary growth constraint 154 and a second primarygrowth constraint 156, as described above, and a first primaryconnecting member 162 and a second primary connecting member 164, asdescribed above. Secondary growth constraint system 152 includes a firstsecondary growth constraint 158, a second secondary growth constraint160, and at least one secondary connecting member 166 embodied as thepopulation of electrode structures 110 and/or the population ofcounter-electrode structures 112; therefore, in this embodiment, the atleast one secondary connecting member 166, electrode structures 110,and/or counter-electrode structures 112 can be understood to beinterchangeable. Furthermore, the separator 130 may also form a portionof a secondary connecting member 166. Further, in this embodiment, firstprimary connecting member 162 and first secondary growth constraint 158are interchangeable, as described above. Further still, in thisembodiment, second primary connecting member 164 and second secondarygrowth constraint 160 are interchangeable, as described above. Morespecifically, illustrated in FIG. 7 is one embodiment of a flushconnection of the secondary connecting member 166 corresponding to theelectrode 110 or counter-electrode structure 112 with the firstsecondary growth constraint 158 and second secondary growth constraint160. The flush connection may further include a layer of glue 182between the first secondary growth constraint 158 and secondaryconnecting member 166, and a layer of glue 182 between the secondsecondary growth constraint 160 and secondary connecting member 166. Thelayers of glue 182 affix first secondary growth constraint 158 tosecondary connecting members 166, and affix the second secondary growthconstraint 160 to secondary connecting member 166.

Also, one or more of the first and second primary growth constraints154, 156, first and second primary connecting members 162, 164, firstand second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, and at least onesecondary connecting member 166 may be provided in the form of aplurality of segments 1088 or parts that can be joined together to forma single member. For example, as shown in the embodiment as illustratedin FIG. 7, a first secondary growth constraint 158 is provided in theform of a main middle segment 1088 a and first and second end segments1088 b located towards the longitudinal ends 117, 119 of the electrodeassembly 106, with the middle segment 1088 a being connected to eachfirst and second end segment 1088 b by a connecting portion 1089provided to connect the segments 1088, such as notches formed in thesegments 1088 that can be interconnected to join the segments 1088 toone another. A second secondary growth constraint 160 may similarly beprovided in the form of a plurality of segments 1088 that can beconnected together to form the constraint, as shown in FIG. 7. In oneembodiment, one or more of the secondary growth constraints 158, 160, atleast one primary connecting member 162, and/or at least one secondaryconnecting member 166 may also be provided in the form of a plurality ofsegments 1088 that can be connected together via a connecting portionssuch as notches to form the complete member. According to oneembodiment, the connection of the segments 1088 together via the notchor other connecting portion may provide for pre-tensioning of the memberformed of the plurality of segments when the segments are connected.

Further illustrated in FIG. 7, in one embodiment, are members of theelectrode population 110 having an electrode active material layer 132,an ionically porous electrode current collector 136, and an electrodebackbone 134 that supports the electrode active material layer 132 andthe electrode current collector 136. Similarly, in one embodiment,illustrated in FIG. 7 are members of the counter-electrode population112 having a counter-electrode active material layer 138, acounter-electrode current collector 140, and a counter-electrodebackbone 141 that supports the counter-electrode active material layer138 and the counter-electrode current collector 140.

Without being bound to any particular theory (e.g., as in FIG. 7), incertain embodiments, members of the electrode population 110 include anelectrode active material layer 132, an electrode current collector 136,and an electrode backbone 134 that supports the electrode activematerial layer 132 and the electrode current collector 136. Similarly,in certain embodiments, members of the counter-electrode population 112include a counter-electrode active material layer 138, acounter-electrode current collector 140, and a counter-electrodebackbone 141 that supports the counter-electrode active material layer138 and the counter-electrode current collector 140.

While members of the electrode population 110 have been illustrated anddescribed herein to include the electrode active material layer 132being directly adjacent to the electrode backbone 134, and the electrodecurrent collector 136 directly adjacent to and effectively surroundingthe electrode backbone 134 and the electrode active material layer 132,those of skill in the art will appreciate other arrangements of theelectrode population 110 have been contemplated. For example, in oneembodiment (not shown), the electrode population 110 may include theelectrode active material layer 132 being directly adjacent to theelectrode current collector 136, and the electrode current collector 136being directly adjacent to the electrode backbone 134. Statedalternatively, the electrode backbone 134 may be effectively surroundedby the electrode current collector 136, with the electrode activematerial layer 132 flanking and being directly adjacent to the electrodecurrent collector 136. As will be appreciated by those of skill in theart, any suitable configuration of the electrode population 110 and/orthe counter-electrode population 112 may be applicable to the inventivesubject matter described herein, so long as the electrode activematerial layer 132 is separated from the counter-electrode activematerial layer 138 via separator 130. Also, the electrode currentcollector 136 is required to be ion permeable if it is located betweenthe electrode active material layer 132 and separator 130; and thecounter-electrode current collector 140 is required to be ion permeableif it is located between the counter-electrode active material layer 138and separator 130.

For ease of illustration, only three members of the electrode population110 and four members of the counter-electrode population 112 aredepicted; in practice, however, an energy storage device 100 orsecondary battery 102 using the inventive subject matter herein mayinclude additional members of the electrode 110 and counter-electrode112 populations depending on the application of the energy storagedevice 100 or secondary battery 102, as described above. Further still,illustrated in FIG. 7 is a microporous separator 130 electricallyinsulating the electrode active material layer 132 from thecounter-electrode active material layer 138.

As described above, in certain embodiments, each member of thepopulation of electrode structures 110 may expand upon insertion ofcarrier ions (not shown) within an electrolyte (not shown) into theelectrode structures 110, and contract upon extraction of carrier ionsfrom electrode structures 110. For example, in one embodiment, theelectrode structures 110 may be anodically active. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment, the electrode structures 110 may becathodically active.

Furthermore, to connect the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, the constraints 158, 160 can beattached to the at least one connecting member 166 by a suitable means,such as by gluing as shown, or alternatively by being welded, such as bybeing welded to the current collectors 136, 140. For example, the firstand/or second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, canbe attached to a secondary connecting member 166 corresponding to atleast one of an electrode structure 110 and/or counter-electrodestructure 112, such as at least one of an electrode and/orcounter-electrode backbone 134, 141, respectively, an electrode and/orcounter-electrode current collector 136, 140, respectively, by at leastone of adhering, gluing, bonding, welding, and the like. According toone embodiment, the first and/or second secondary growth constraints158, 160, respectively, can be attached to the secondary connectingmember 166 by mechanically pressing the first and/or second secondarygrowth constraint 158, 160, respectively, to an end of one or moresecondary connecting member 166, such as ends of the population ofelectrode 100 and/or counter-electrode structures 112, while using aglue or other adhesive material to adhere one or more ends of theelectrode 110 and/or counter-electrode structures 112 to at least one ofthe first and/or second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively.

FIGS. 8A-B depict force schematics, according to one embodiment, showingthe forces exerted on the electrode assembly 106 by the set of electrodeconstraints 108, as well as the forces being exerted by electrodestructures 110 upon repeated cycling of a secondary battery 102containing the electrode assembly 106. As shown in FIGS. 8A-B, repeatedcycling through charge and discharge of the secondary battery 102 cancause growth in electrode structures 110, such as in electrode activematerial layers 132 of the electrode structures 110, due tointercalation and/or alloying of ions (e.g., Li) into the electrodeactive material layers 132 of the electrode structures 110. Thus, theelectrode structures 110 can exert opposing forces 198 a in the verticaldirection, as well as opposing forces 198 b in the longitudinaldirection, due to the growth in volume of the electrode structure 110.While not specifically shown, the electrode structure 110 may also exertopposing forces in the transverse direction due to the change in volume.To counteract these forces, and to restrain overall growth of theelectrode assembly 106, in one embodiment, the set of electrodeconstraints 108 includes the primary growth constraint system 151 withthe first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156, respectively,at the longitudinal ends 117, 119 of the electrode assembly 106, whichexert forces 200 a in the longitudinal direction to counter thelongitudinal forces 198 b exerted by the electrode structure 110.Similarly, in one embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108includes the secondary growth constraint system 152 with the first andsecond secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, at opposingsurfaces along the vertical direction of the electrode assembly 106,which exert forces 200 b in the vertical direction to counter thevertical forces 198 a exerted by the electrode structure 110.Furthermore, a tertiary growth constraint system 155 (not shown) canalso be provided, alternatively or in addition, to one or more of thefirst and second growth constraint systems 151, 152, respectively, toexert counter forces in the transverse direction to counteracttransverse forces exerted by volume changes of the electrode structures110 in the electrode assembly 106. Accordingly, the set of electrodeconstraints 108 may be capable of at least partially countering theforces exerted by the electrode structure 110 by volume change of theelectrode structure 110 during cycling between charge and discharge,such that an overall macroscopic growth of the electrode assembly 106can be controlled and restrained.

Population of Electrode Structures

Referring again to FIG. 7, each member of the population of electrodestructures 110 may also include a top 1052 adjacent to the firstsecondary growth constraint 158, a bottom 1054 adjacent to the secondsecondary growth constraint 160, and a lateral surface (not marked)surrounding a vertical axis A_(ES) (not marked) parallel to the Z axis,the lateral surface connecting the top 1052 and the bottom 1054. Theelectrode structures 110 further include a length L_(ES), a widthW_(ES), and a height H_(ES). The length L_(ES) being bounded by thelateral surface and measured along the X axis. The width W_(ES) beingbounded by the lateral surface and measured along the Y axis, and theheight H_(ES) being measured along the vertical axis A_(ES) or the Zaxis from the top 1052 to the bottom 1054.

The L_(ES) of the members of the electrode population 110 will varydepending upon the energy storage device 100 or the secondary battery102 and their intended use(s). In general, however, the members of theelectrode population 110 will typically have a L_(ES) in the range ofabout 5 mm to about 500 mm. For example, in one such embodiment, themembers of the electrode population 110 have a L_(ES) of about 10 mm toabout 250 mm. By way of further example, in one such embodiment, themembers of the electrode population 110 have a L_(ES) of about 20 mm toabout 100 mm.

The W_(ES) of the members of the electrode population 110 will also varydepending upon the energy storage device 100 or the secondary battery102 and their intended use(s). In general, however, each member of theelectrode population 110 will typically have a W_(ES) within the rangeof about 0.01 mm to 2.5 mm. For example, in one embodiment, the W_(ES)of each member of the electrode population 110 will be in the range ofabout 0.025 mm to about 2 mm. By way of further example, in oneembodiment, the W_(ES) of each member of the electrode population 110will be in the range of about 0.05 mm to about 1 mm.

The H_(ES) of the members of the electrode population 110 will also varydepending upon the energy storage device 100 or the secondary battery102 and their intended use(s). In general, however, members of theelectrode population 110 will typically have a H_(ES) within the rangeof about 0.05 mm to about 10 mm. For example, in one embodiment, theH_(ES) of each member of the electrode population 110 will be in therange of about 0.05 mm to about 5 mm. By way of further example, in oneembodiment, the H_(ES) of each member of the electrode population 110will be in the range of about 0.1 mm to about 1 mm.

In another embodiment, each member of the population of electrodestructures 110 may include an electrode structure backbone 134 having avertical axis A_(ESB) parallel to the Z axis. The electrode structurebackbone 134 may also include a layer of electrode active material 132surrounding the electrode structure backbone 134 about the vertical axisA_(ESB). Stated alternatively, the electrode structure backbone 134provides mechanical stability for the layer of electrode active material132, and may provide a point of attachment for the primary growthconstraint system 151 and/or secondary constraint system 152. In certainembodiments, the layer of electrode active material 132 expands uponinsertion of carrier ions into the layer of electrode active material132, and contracts upon extraction of carrier ions from the layer ofelectrode active material 132. For example, in one embodiment, the layerof electrode active material 132 may be anodically active. By way offurther example, in one embodiment, the layer of electrode activematerial 132 may be cathodically active. The electrode structurebackbone 134 may also include a top 1056 adjacent to the first secondarygrowth constraint 158, a bottom 1058 adjacent to the second secondarygrowth constraint 160, and a lateral surface (not marked) surroundingthe vertical axis A_(ESB) and connecting the top 1056 and the bottom1058. The electrode structure backbone 134 further includes a lengthL_(ESB), a width W_(ESB), and a height H_(ESB). The length L_(ESB) beingbounded by the lateral surface and measured along the X axis. The widthW_(ESB) being bounded by the lateral surface and measured along the Yaxis, and the height H_(ESB) being measured along the Z axis from thetop 1056 to the bottom 1058.

The L_(ESB) of the electrode structure backbone 134 will vary dependingupon the energy storage device 100 or the secondary battery 102 andtheir intended use(s). In general, however, the electrode structurebackbone 134 will typically have a L_(ESB) in the range of about 5 mm toabout 500 mm. For example, in one such embodiment, the electrodestructure backbone 134 will have a L_(ESB) of about 10 mm to about 250mm. By way of further example, in one such embodiment, the electrodestructure backbone 134 will have a L_(ESB) of about 20 mm to about 100mm. According to one embodiment, the electrode structure backbone 134may be the substructure of the electrode structure 110 that acts as theat least one connecting member 166.

The W_(ESB) of the electrode structure backbone 134 will also varydepending upon the energy storage device 100 or the secondary battery102 and their intended use(s). In general, however, each electrodestructure backbone 134 will typically have a W_(ESB) of at least 1micrometer. For example, in one embodiment, the W_(ESB) of eachelectrode structure backbone 134 may be substantially thicker, butgenerally will not have a thickness in excess of 500 micrometers. By wayof further example, in one embodiment, the W_(ESB) of each electrodestructure backbone 134 will be in the range of about 1 to about 50micrometers.

The H_(ESB) of the electrode structure backbone 134 will also varydepending upon the energy storage device 100 or the secondary battery102 and their intended use(s). In general, however, the electrodestructure backbone 134 will typically have a H_(ESB) of at least about50 micrometers, more typically at least about 100 micrometers. Further,in general, the electrode structure backbone 134 will typically have aH_(ESB) of no more than about 10,000 micrometers, and more typically nomore than about 5,000 micrometers. For example, in one embodiment, theH_(ESB) of each electrode structure backbone 134 will be in the range ofabout 0.05 mm to about 10 mm. By way of further example, in oneembodiment, the H_(ESB) of each electrode structure backbone 134 will bein the range of about 0.05 mm to about 5 mm. By way of further example,in one embodiment, the H_(ESB) of each electrode structure backbone 134will be in the range of about 0.1 mm to about 1 mm.

Depending upon the application, electrode structure backbone 134 may beelectrically conductive or insulating. For example, in one embodiment,the electrode structure backbone 134 may be electrically conductive andmay include electrode current collector 136 for electrode activematerial 132. In one such embodiment, electrode structure backbone 134includes an electrode current collector 136 having a conductivity of atleast about 10³ Siemens/cm. By way of further example, in one suchembodiment, electrode structure backbone 134 includes an electrodecurrent collector 136 having a conductivity of at least about 10⁴Siemens/cm. By way of further example, in one such embodiment, electrodestructure backbone 134 includes an electrode current collector 136having a conductivity of at least about 10⁵ Siemens/cm. In otherembodiments, electrode structure backbone 134 is relativelynonconductive. For example, in one embodiment, electrode structurebackbone 134 has an electrical conductivity of less than 10 Siemens/cm.By way of further example, in one embodiment, electrode structurebackbone 134 has an electrical conductivity of less than 1 Siemens/cm.By way of further example, in one embodiment, electrode structurebackbone 134 has an electrical conductivity of less than 10⁻¹Siemens/cm.

In certain embodiments, electrode structure backbone 134 may include anymaterial that may be shaped, such as metals, semiconductors, organics,ceramics, and glasses. For example, in certain embodiments, materialsinclude semiconductor materials such as silicon and germanium.Alternatively, however, carbon-based organic materials, or metals, suchas aluminum, copper, nickel, cobalt, titanium, and tungsten, may also beincorporated into electrode structure backbone 134. In one exemplaryembodiment, electrode structure backbone 134 comprises silicon. Thesilicon, for example, may be single crystal silicon, polycrystallinesilicon, amorphous silicon, or a combination thereof.

In certain embodiments, the electrode active material layer 132 may havea thickness of at least one micrometer. Typically, however, theelectrode active material layer 132 thickness will not exceed 200micrometers. For example, in one embodiment, the electrode activematerial layer 132 may have a thickness of about 1 to 50 micrometers. Byway of further example, in one embodiment, the electrode active materiallayer 132 may have a thickness of about 2 to about 75 micrometers. Byway of further example, in one embodiment, the electrode active materiallayer 132 may have a thickness of about 10 to about 100 micrometers. Byway of further example, in one embodiment, the electrode active materiallayer 132 may have a thickness of about 5 to about 50 micrometers.

In certain embodiments, the electrode current collector 136 includes anionically permeable conductor material that has sufficient ionicpermeability to carrier ions to facilitate the movement of carrier ionsfrom the separator 130 to the electrode active material layer 132, andsufficient electrical conductivity to enable it to serve as a currentcollector. Being positioned between the electrode active material layer132 and the separator 130, the electrode current collector 136 mayfacilitate more uniform carrier ion transport by distributing currentfrom the electrode current collector 136 across the surface of theelectrode active material layer 132. This, in turn, may facilitate moreuniform insertion and extraction of carrier ions and thereby reducestress in the electrode active material layer 132 during cycling; sincethe electrode current collector 136 distributes current to the surfaceof the electrode active material layer 132 facing the separator 130, thereactivity of the electrode active material layer 132 for carrier ionswill be the greatest where the carrier ion concentration is thegreatest.

The electrode current collector 136 includes an ionically permeableconductor material that is both ionically and electrically conductive.Stated differently, the electrode current collector 136 has a thickness,an electrical conductivity, and an ionic conductivity for carrier ionsthat facilitates the movement of carrier ions between an immediatelyadjacent electrode active material layer 132 on one side of theionically permeable conductor layer and an immediately adjacentseparator layer 130 on the other side of the electrode current collector136 in an electrochemical stack or electrode assembly 106. On a relativebasis, the electrode current collector 136 has an electrical conductancethat is greater than its ionic conductance when there is an appliedcurrent to store energy in the device 100 or an applied load todischarge the device 100. For example, the ratio of the electricalconductance to the ionic conductance (for carrier ions) of the electrodecurrent collector 136 will typically be at least 1,000:1, respectively,when there is an applied current to store energy in the device 100 or anapplied load to discharge the device 100. By way of further example, inone such embodiment, the ratio of the electrical conductance to theionic conductance (for carrier ions) of the electrode current collector136 is at least 5,000:1, respectively, when there is an applied currentto store energy in the device 100 or an applied load to discharge thedevice 100. By way of further example, in one such embodiment, the ratioof the electrical conductance to the ionic conductance (for carrierions) of the electrode current collector 136 is at least 10,000:1,respectively, when there is an applied current to store energy in thedevice 100 or an applied load to discharge the device 100. By way offurther example, in one such embodiment, the ratio of the electricalconductance to the ionic conductance (for carrier ions) of the electrodecurrent collector 136 layer is at least 50,000:1, respectively, whenthere is an applied current to store energy in the device 100 or anapplied load to discharge the device 100. By way of further example, inone such embodiment, the ratio of the electrical conductance to theionic conductance (for carrier ions) of the electrode current collector136 is at least 100,000:1, respectively, when there is an appliedcurrent to store energy in the device 100 or an applied load todischarge the device 100.

In one embodiment, and when there is an applied current to store energyin the device 100 or an applied load to discharge the device 100, suchas when a secondary battery 102 is charging or discharging, theelectrode current collector 136 has an ionic conductance that iscomparable to the ionic conductance of an adjacent separator layer 130.For example, in one embodiment, the electrode current collector 136 hasan ionic conductance (for carrier ions) that is at least 50% of theionic conductance of the separator layer 130 (i.e., a ratio of 0.5:1,respectively) when there is an applied current to store energy in thedevice 100 or an applied load to discharge the device 100. By way offurther example, in some embodiments, the ratio of the ionic conductance(for carrier ions) of the electrode current collector 136 to the ionicconductance (for carrier ions) of the separator layer 130 is at least1:1 when there is an applied current to store energy in the device 100or an applied load to discharge the device 100. By way of furtherexample, in some embodiments, the ratio of the ionic conductance (forcarrier ions) of the electrode current collector 136 to the ionicconductance (for carrier ions) of the separator layer 130 is at least1.25:1 when there is an applied current to store energy in the device100 or an applied load to discharge the device 100. By way of furtherexample, in some embodiments, the ratio of the ionic conductance (forcarrier ions) of the electrode current collector 136 to the ionicconductance (for carrier ions) of the separator layer 130 is at least1.5:1 when there is an applied current to store energy in the device 100or an applied load to discharge the device 100. By way of furtherexample, in some embodiments, the ratio of the ionic conductance (forcarrier ions) of the electrode current collector 136 to the ionicconductance (for carrier ions) of the separator layer 130 is at least2:1 when there is an applied current to store energy in the device 100or an applied load to discharge the device 100.

In one embodiment, the electrode current collector 136 also has anelectrical conductance that is substantially greater than the electricalconductance of the electrode active material layer 132. For example, inone embodiment, the ratio of the electrical conductance of the electrodecurrent collector 136 to the electrical conductance of the electrodeactive material layer 132 is at least 100:1 when there is an appliedcurrent to store energy in the device 100 or an applied load todischarge the device 100. By way of further example, in someembodiments, the ratio of the electrical conductance of the electrodecurrent collector 136 to the electrical conductance of the electrodeactive material layer 132 is at least 500:1 when there is an appliedcurrent to store energy in the device 100 or an applied load todischarge the device 100. By way of further example, in someembodiments, the ratio of the electrical conductance of the electrodecurrent collector 136 to the electrical conductance of the electrodeactive material layer 132 is at least 1000:1 when there is an appliedcurrent to store energy in the device 100 or an applied load todischarge the device 100. By way of further example, in someembodiments, the ratio of the electrical conductance of the electrodecurrent collector 136 to the electrical conductance of the electrodeactive material layer 132 is at least 5000:1 when there is an appliedcurrent to store energy in the device 100 or an applied load todischarge the device 100. By way of further example, in someembodiments, the ratio of the electrical conductance of the electrodecurrent collector 136 to the electrical conductance of the electrodeactive material layer 132 is at least 10,000:1 when there is an appliedcurrent to store energy in the device 100 or an applied load todischarge the device 100.

The thickness of the electrode current collector layer 136 (i.e., theshortest distance between the separator 130 and, in one embodiment, theanodically active material layer (e.g., electrode active material layer132) between which the electrode current collector layer 136 issandwiched) in certain embodiments will depend upon the composition ofthe layer 136 and the performance specifications for the electrochemicalstack. In general, when an electrode current collector layer 136 is anionically permeable conductor layer, it will have a thickness of atleast about 300 Angstroms. For example, in some embodiments, it may havea thickness in the range of about 300-800 Angstroms. More typically,however, it will have a thickness greater than about 0.1 micrometers. Ingeneral, an ionically permeable conductor layer will have a thicknessnot greater than about 100 micrometers. Thus, for example, in oneembodiment, the electrode current collector layer 136 will have athickness in the range of about 0.1 to about 10 micrometers. By way offurther example, in some embodiments, the electrode current collectorlayer 136 will have a thickness in the range of about 0.1 to about 5micrometers. By way of further example, in some embodiments, theelectrode current collector layer 136 will have a thickness in the rangeof about 0.5 to about 3 micrometers. In general, it is preferred thatthe thickness of the electrode current collector layer 136 beapproximately uniform. For example, in one embodiment, it is preferredthat the electrode current collector layer 136 have a thicknessnon-uniformity of less than about 25%. In certain embodiments, thethickness variation is even less. For example, in some embodiments, theelectrode current collector layer 136 has a thickness non-uniformity ofless than about 20%. By way of further example, in some embodiments, theelectrode current collector layer 136 has a thickness non-uniformity ofless than about 15%. In some embodiments the ionically permeableconductor layer has a thickness non-uniformity of less than about 10%.

In one embodiment, the electrode current collector layer 136 is anionically permeable conductor layer including an electrically conductivecomponent and an ion conductive component that contribute to the ionicpermeability and electrical conductivity. Typically, the electricallyconductive component will include a continuous electrically conductivematerial (e.g., a continuous metal or metal alloy) in the form of a meshor patterned surface, a film, or composite material comprising thecontinuous electrically conductive material (e.g., a continuous metal ormetal alloy). Additionally, the ion conductive component will typicallycomprise pores, for example, interstices of a mesh, spaces between apatterned metal or metal alloy containing material layer, pores in ametal film, or a solid ion conductor having sufficient diffusivity forcarrier ions. In certain embodiments, the ionically permeable conductorlayer includes a deposited porous material, an ion-transportingmaterial, an ion-reactive material, a composite material, or aphysically porous material. If porous, for example, the ionicallypermeable conductor layer may have a void fraction of at least about0.25. In general, however, the void fraction will typically not exceedabout 0.95. More typically, when the ionically permeable conductor layeris porous the void fraction may be in the range of about 0.25 to about0.85. In some embodiments, for example, when the ionically permeableconductor layer is porous the void fraction may be in the range of about0.35 to about 0.65.

In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 7, electrode current collectorlayer 136 is the sole anode current collector for electrode activematerial layer 132. Stated differently, electrode structure backbone 134may include an anode current collector. In certain other embodiments,however, electrode structure backbone 134 may optionally not include ananode current collector.

Population of Counter-Electrode Structures

Referring again to FIG. 7, each member of the population ofcounter-electrode structures 112 may also include a top 1068 adjacent tothe first secondary growth constraint 158, a bottom 1070 adjacent to thesecond secondary growth constraint 160, and a lateral surface (notmarked) surrounding a vertical axis A_(CES) (not marked) parallel to theZ axis, the lateral surface connecting the top 1068 and the bottom 1070.The counter-electrode structures 112 further include a length L_(CES), awidth W_(CES), and a height H_(CES). The length L_(CES) being bounded bythe lateral surface and measured along the X axis. The width W_(CES)being bounded by the lateral surface and measured along the Y axis, andthe height H_(CES) being measured along the vertical axis A_(CES) or theZ axis from the top 1068 to the bottom 1070.

The L_(CES) of the members of the counter-electrode population 112 willvary depending upon the energy storage device 100 or the secondarybattery 102 and their intended use(s). In general, however, the membersof the counter-electrode population 112 will typically have a L_(CES) inthe range of about 5 mm to about 500 mm. For example, in one suchembodiment, the members of the counter-electrode population 112 have aL_(CES) of about 10 mm to about 250 mm. By way of further example, inone such embodiment, the members of the counter-electrode population 112have a L_(CES) of about 25 mm to about 100 mm.

The W_(CES) of the members of the counter-electrode population 112 willalso vary depending upon the energy storage device 100 or the secondarybattery 102 and their intended use(s). In general, however, each memberof the counter-electrode population 112 will typically have a W_(CES)within the range of about 0.01 mm to 2.5 mm. For example, in oneembodiment, the W_(CES) of each member of the counter-electrodepopulation 112 will be in the range of about 0.025 mm to about 2 mm. Byway of further example, in one embodiment, the W_(CES) of each member ofthe counter-electrode population 112 will be in the range of about 0.05mm to about 1 mm.

The H_(CES) of the members of the counter-electrode population 112 willalso vary depending upon the energy storage device 100 or the secondarybattery 102 and their intended use(s). In general, however, members ofthe counter-electrode population 112 will typically have a H_(CES)within the range of about 0.05 mm to about 10 mm. For example, in oneembodiment, the H_(CES) of each member of the counter-electrodepopulation 112 will be in the range of about 0.05 mm to about 5 mm. Byway of further example, in one embodiment, the H_(CES) of each member ofthe electrode population 112 will be in the range of about 0.1 mm toabout 1 mm.

In another embodiment, each member of the population ofcounter-electrode structures 112 may include a counter-electrodestructure backbone 141 having a vertical axis A_(CESB) parallel to the Zaxis. The counter-electrode structure backbone 141 may also include alayer of counter-electrode active material 138 surrounding thecounter-electrode structure backbone 141 about the vertical axisA_(CESB). Stated alternatively, the counter-electrode structure backbone141 provides mechanical stability for the layer of counter-electrodeactive material 138, and may provide a point of attachment for theprimary growth constraint system 151 and/or secondary growth constraintsystem 152. In certain embodiments, the layer of counter-electrodeactive material 138 expands upon insertion of carrier ions into thelayer of counter-electrode active material 138, and contracts uponextraction of carrier ions from the layer of counter-electrode activematerial 138. For example, in one embodiment, the layer ofcounter-electrode active material 138 may be anodically active. By wayof further example, in one embodiment, the layer of counter-electrodeactive material 138 may be cathodically active. The counter-electrodestructure backbone 141 may also include a top 1072 adjacent to the firstsecondary growth constraint 158, a bottom 1074 adjacent to the secondsecondary growth constraint 160, and a lateral surface (not marked)surrounding the vertical axis A_(CESB) and connecting the top 1072 andthe bottom 1074. The counter-electrode structure backbone 141 furtherincludes a length L_(CESB), a width W_(CESB), and a height H_(CESB). Thelength L_(CESB) being bounded by the lateral surface and measured alongthe X axis. The width W_(CESB) being bounded by the lateral surface andmeasured along the Y axis, and the height H_(CESB) being measured alongthe Z axis from the top 1072 to the bottom 1074.

The L_(CESB) of the counter-electrode structure backbone 141 will varydepending upon the energy storage device 100 or the secondary battery102 and their intended use(s). In general, however, thecounter-electrode structure backbone 141 will typically have a L_(CESB)in the range of about 5 mm to about 500 mm. For example, in one suchembodiment, the counter-electrode structure backbone 141 will have aL_(CESB) of about 10 mm to about 250 mm. By way of further example, inone such embodiment, the counter-electrode structure backbone 141 willhave a L_(CESB) of about 20 mm to about 100 mm.

The W_(CESB) of the counter-electrode structure backbone 141 will alsovary depending upon the energy storage device 100 or the secondarybattery 102 and their intended use(s). In general, however, eachcounter-electrode structure backbone 141 will typically have a W_(CESB)of at least 1 micrometer. For example, in one embodiment, the W_(CESB)of each counter-electrode structure backbone 141 may be substantiallythicker, but generally will not have a thickness in excess of 500micrometers. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the W_(CESB)of each counter-electrode structure backbone 141 will be in the range ofabout 1 to about 50 micrometers.

The H_(CESB) of the counter-electrode structure backbone 141 will alsovary depending upon the energy storage device 100 or the secondarybattery 102 and their intended use(s). In general, however, thecounter-electrode structure backbone 141 will typically have a H_(CESB)of at least about 50 micrometers, more typically at least about 100micrometers. Further, in general, the counter-electrode structurebackbone 141 will typically have a H_(CESB) of no more than about 10,000micrometers, and more typically no more than about 5,000 micrometers.For example, in one embodiment, the H_(CESB) of each counter-electrodestructure backbone 141 will be in the range of about 0.05 mm to about 10mm. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the H_(CESB) of eachcounter-electrode structure backbone 141 will be in the range of about0.05 mm to about 5 mm. By way of further example, in one embodiment, theH_(CESB) of each counter-electrode structure backbone 141 will be in therange of about 0.1 mm to about 1 mm.

Depending upon the application, counter-electrode structure backbone 141may be electrically conductive or insulating. For example, in oneembodiment, the counter-electrode structure backbone 141 may beelectrically conductive and may include counter-electrode currentcollector 140 for counter-electrode active material 138. In one suchembodiment, counter-electrode structure backbone 141 includes acounter-electrode current collector 140 having a conductivity of atleast about 10³ Siemens/cm. By way of further example, in one suchembodiment, counter-electrode structure backbone 141 includes acounter-electrode current collector 140 having a conductivity of atleast about 10⁴ Siemens/cm. By way of further example, in one suchembodiment, counter-electrode structure backbone 141 includes acounter-electrode current collector 140 having a conductivity of atleast about 10⁵ Siemens/cm. In other embodiments, counter-electrodestructure backbone 141 is relatively nonconductive. For example, in oneembodiment, counter-electrode structure backbone 141 has an electricalconductivity of less than 10 Siemens/cm. By way of further example, inone embodiment, counter-electrode structure backbone 141 has anelectrical conductivity of less than 1 Siemens/cm. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment, counter-electrode structure backbone 141 hasan electrical conductivity of less than 10⁻¹ Siemens/cm.

In certain embodiments, counter-electrode structure backbone 141 mayinclude any material that may be shaped, such as metals, semiconductors,organics, ceramics, and glasses. For example, in certain embodiments,materials include semiconductor materials such as silicon and germanium.Alternatively, however, carbon-based organic materials, or metals, suchas aluminum, copper, nickel, cobalt, titanium, and tungsten, may also beincorporated into counter-electrode structure backbone 141. In oneexemplary embodiment, counter-electrode structure backbone 141 comprisessilicon. The silicon, for example, may be single crystal silicon,polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, or a combination thereof.

In certain embodiments, the counter-electrode active material layer 138may have a thickness of at least one micrometer. Typically, however, thecounter-electrode active material layer 138 thickness will not exceed200 micrometers. For example, in one embodiment, the counter-electrodeactive material layer 138 may have a thickness of about 1 to 50micrometers. By way of further example, in one embodiment, thecounter-electrode active material layer 138 may have a thickness ofabout 2 to about 75 micrometers. By way of further example, in oneembodiment, the counter-electrode active material layer 138 may have athickness of about 10 to about 100 micrometers. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment, the counter-electrode active material layer138 may have a thickness of about 5 to about 50 micrometers.

In certain embodiments, the counter-electrode current collector 140includes an ionically permeable conductor that has sufficient ionicpermeability to carrier ions to facilitate the movement of carrier ionsfrom the separator 130 to the counter-electrode active material layer138, and sufficient electrical conductivity to enable it to serve as acurrent collector. Whether or not positioned between thecounter-electrode active material layer 138 and the separator 130, thecounter-electrode current collector 140 may facilitate more uniformcarrier ion transport by distributing current from the counter-electrodecurrent collector 140 across the surface of the counter-electrode activematerial layer 138. This, in turn, may facilitate more uniform insertionand extraction of carrier ions and thereby reduce stress in thecounter-electrode active material layer 138 during cycling; since thecounter-electrode current collector 140 distributes current to thesurface of the counter-electrode active material layer 138 facing theseparator 130, the reactivity of the counter-electrode active materiallayer 138 for carrier ions will be the greatest where the carrier ionconcentration is the greatest.

The counter-electrode current collector 140 includes an ionicallypermeable conductor material that is both ionically and electricallyconductive. Stated differently, the counter-electrode current collector140 has a thickness, an electrical conductivity, and an ionicconductivity for carrier ions that facilitates the movement of carrierions between an immediately adjacent counter-electrode active materiallayer 138 on one side of the ionically permeable conductor layer and animmediately adjacent separator layer 130 on the other side of thecounter-electrode current collector 140 in an electrochemical stack orelectrode assembly 106. On a relative basis, the counter-electrodecurrent collector 140 has an electrical conductance that is greater thanits ionic conductance when there is an applied current to store energyin the device 100 or an applied load to discharge the device 100. Forexample, the ratio of the electrical conductance to the ionicconductance (for carrier ions) of the counter-electrode currentcollector 140 will typically be at least 1,000:1, respectively, whenthere is an applied current to store energy in the device 100 or anapplied load to discharge the device 100. By way of further example, inone such embodiment, the ratio of the electrical conductance to theionic conductance (for carrier ions) of the counter-electrode currentcollector 140 is at least 5,000:1, respectively, when there is anapplied current to store energy in the device 100 or an applied load todischarge the device 100. By way of further example, in one suchembodiment, the ratio of the electrical conductance to the ionicconductance (for carrier ions) of the counter-electrode currentcollector 140 is at least 10,000:1, respectively, when there is anapplied current to store energy in the device 100 or an applied load todischarge the device 100. By way of further example, in one suchembodiment, the ratio of the electrical conductance to the ionicconductance (for carrier ions) of the counter-electrode currentcollector 140 layer is at least 50,000:1, respectively, when there is anapplied current to store energy in the device 100 or an applied load todischarge the device 100. By way of further example, in one suchembodiment, the ratio of the electrical conductance to the ionicconductance (for carrier ions) of the counter-electrode currentcollector 140 is at least 100,000:1, respectively, when there is anapplied current to store energy in the device 100 or an applied load todischarge the device 100.

In one embodiment, and when there is an applied current to store energyin the device 100 or an applied load to discharge the device 100, suchas when an energy storage device 100 or a secondary battery 102 ischarging or discharging, the counter-electrode current collector 140 hasan ionic conductance that is comparable to the ionic conductance of anadjacent separator layer 130. For example, in one embodiment, thecounter-electrode current collector 140 has an ionic conductance (forcarrier ions) that is at least 50% of the ionic conductance of theseparator layer 130 (i.e., a ratio of 0.5:1, respectively) when there isan applied current to store energy in the device 100 or an applied loadto discharge the device 100. By way of further example, in someembodiments, the ratio of the ionic conductance (for carrier ions) ofthe counter-electrode current collector 140 to the ionic conductance(for carrier ions) of the separator layer 130 is at least 1:1 when thereis an applied current to store energy in the device 100 or an appliedload to discharge the device 100. By way of further example, in someembodiments, the ratio of the ionic conductance (for carrier ions) ofthe counter-electrode current collector 140 to the ionic conductance(for carrier ions) of the separator layer 130 is at least 1.25:1 whenthere is an applied current to store energy in the device 100 or anapplied load to discharge the device 100. By way of further example, insome embodiments, the ratio of the ionic conductance (for carrier ions)of the counter-electrode current collector 140 to the ionic conductance(for carrier ions) of the separator layer 130 is at least 1.5:1 whenthere is an applied current to store energy in the device 100 or anapplied load to discharge the device 100. By way of further example, insome embodiments, the ratio of the ionic conductance (for carrier ions)of the counter-electrode current collector 140 to the ionic conductance(for (anode current collector layer) carrier ions) of the separatorlayer 130 is at least 2:1 when there is an applied current to storeenergy in the device 100 or an applied load to discharge the device 100.

In one embodiment, the counter-electrode current collector 140 also hasan electrical conductance that is substantially greater than theelectrical conductance of the counter-electrode active material layer138. For example, in one embodiment, the ratio of the electricalconductance of the counter-electrode current collector 140 to theelectrical conductance of the counter-electrode active material layer138 is at least 100:1 when there is an applied current to store energyin the device 100 or an applied load to discharge the device 100. By wayof further example, in some embodiments, the ratio of the electricalconductance of the counter-electrode current collector 140 to theelectrical conductance of the counter-electrode active material layer138 is at least 500:1 when there is an applied current to store energyin the device 100 or an applied load to discharge the device 100. By wayof further example, in some embodiments, the ratio of the electricalconductance of the counter-electrode current collector 140 to theelectrical conductance of the counter-electrode active material layer138 is at least 1000:1 when there is an applied current to store energyin the device 100 or an applied load to discharge the device 100. By wayof further example, in some embodiments, the ratio of the electricalconductance of the counter-electrode current collector 140 to theelectrical conductance of the counter-electrode active material layer138 is at least 5000:1 when there is an applied current to store energyin the device 100 or an applied load to discharge the device 100. By wayof further example, in some embodiments, the ratio of the electricalconductance of the counter-electrode current collector 140 to theelectrical conductance of the counter-electrode active material layer138 is at least 10,000:1 when there is an applied current to storeenergy in the device 100 or an applied load to discharge the device 100.

The thickness of the counter-electrode current collector layer 140(i.e., the shortest distance between the separator 130 and, in oneembodiment, the cathodically active material layer (e.g.,counter-electrode active material layer 138) between which thecounter-electrode current collector layer 140 is sandwiched) in certainembodiments will depend upon the composition of the layer 140 and theperformance specifications for the electrochemical stack. In general,when an counter-electrode current collector layer 140 is an ionicallypermeable conductor layer, it will have a thickness of at least about300 Angstroms. For example, in some embodiments, it may have a thicknessin the range of about 300-800 Angstroms. More typically, however, itwill have a thickness greater than about 0.1 micrometers. In general, anionically permeable conductor layer will have a thickness not greaterthan about 100 micrometers. Thus, for example, in one embodiment, thecounter-electrode current collector layer 140 will have a thickness inthe range of about 0.1 to about 10 micrometers. By way of furtherexample, in some embodiments, the counter-electrode current collectorlayer 140 will have a thickness in the range of about 0.1 to about 5micrometers. By way of further example, in some embodiments, thecounter-electrode current collector layer 140 will have a thickness inthe range of about 0.5 to about 3 micrometers. In general, it ispreferred that the thickness of the counter-electrode current collectorlayer 140 be approximately uniform. For example, in one embodiment, itis preferred that the counter-electrode current collector layer 140 havea thickness non-uniformity of less than about 25%. In certainembodiments, the thickness variation is even less. For example, in someembodiments, the counter-electrode current collector layer 140 has athickness non-uniformity of less than about 20%. By way of furtherexample, in some embodiments, the counter-electrode current collectorlayer 140 has a thickness non-uniformity of less than about 15%. In someembodiments, the counter-electrode current collector layer 140 has athickness non-uniformity of less than about 10%.

In one embodiment, the counter-electrode current collector layer 140 isan ionically permeable conductor layer including an electricallyconductive component and an ion conductive component that contributes tothe ionic permeability and electrical conductivity. Typically, theelectrically conductive component will include a continuous electricallyconductive material (e.g., a continuous metal or metal alloy) in theform of a mesh or patterned surface, a film, or composite materialcomprising the continuous electrically conductive material (e.g., acontinuous metal or metal alloy). Additionally, the ion conductivecomponent will typically comprise pores, for example, interstices of amesh, spaces between a patterned metal or metal alloy containingmaterial layer, pores in a metal film, or a solid ion conductor havingsufficient diffusivity for carrier ions. In certain embodiments, theionically permeable conductor layer includes a deposited porousmaterial, an ion-transporting material, an ion-reactive material, acomposite material, or a physically porous material. If porous, forexample, the ionically permeable conductor layer may have a voidfraction of at least about 0.25. In general, however, the void fractionwill typically not exceed about 0.95. More typically, when the ionicallypermeable conductor layer is porous the void fraction may be in therange of about 0.25 too to about 0.85. In some embodiments, for example,when the ionically permeable conductor layer is porous the void fractionmay be in the range of about 0.35 to about 0.65.

In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 7, counter-electrode currentcollector layer 140 is the sole cathode current collector forcounter-electrode active material layer 138. Stated differently,counter-electrode structure backbone 141 may include a cathode currentcollector 140. In certain other embodiments, however, counter-electrodestructure backbone 141 may optionally not include a cathode currentcollector 140.

In one embodiment, first secondary growth constraint 158 and secondsecondary growth constraint 160 each may include an inner surface 1060and 1062, respectively, and an opposing outer surface 1064 and 1066,respectively, separated along the z-axis thereby defining a firstsecondary growth constraint 158 height H₁₅₈ and a second secondarygrowth constraint 160 height H₁₆₀. According to aspects of thedisclosure, increasing the heights of either the first and/or secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, can increase thestiffness of the constraints, but can also require increased volume,thus causing a reduction in energy density for an energy storage device100 or a secondary battery 102 containing the electrode assembly 106 andset of constraints 108. Accordingly, the thickness of the constraints158, 160 can be selected in accordance with the constraint materialproperties, the strength of the constraint required to offset pressurefrom a predetermined expansion of an electrode 100, and other factors.For example, in one embodiment, the first and second secondary growthconstraint heights H₁₅₈ and H₁₆₀, respectively, may be less than 50% ofthe height H_(ES). By way of further example, in one embodiment, thefirst and second secondary growth constraint heights H₁₅₈ and H₁₆₀,respectively, may be less than 25% of the height H_(ES). By way offurther example, in one embodiment, the first and second secondarygrowth constraint heights H₁₅₈ and H₁₆₀, respectively, may be less than10% of the height H_(ES). By way of further example, in one embodiment,the first and second secondary growth constraint heights H₁₅₈ and H₁₆₀may be may be less than about 5% of the height H_(ES). In someembodiments, the first secondary growth constraint height H₁₅₈ and thesecond secondary growth constraint height H₁₆₀ may be different, and thematerials used for each of the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160 may also be different.

In certain embodiments, the inner surfaces 1060 and 1062 may includesurface features amenable to affixing the population of electrodestructures 110 and/or the population of counter-electrode structures 112thereto, and the outer surfaces 1064 and 1066 may include surfacefeatures amenable to the stacking of a plurality of constrainedelectrode assemblies 106 (i.e., inferred within FIG. 7, but not shownfor clarity). For example, in one embodiment, the inner surfaces 1060and 1062 or the outer surfaces 1064 and 1066 may be planar. By way offurther example, in one embodiment, the inner surfaces 1060 and 1062 orthe outer surfaces 1064 and 1066 may be non-planar. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment, the inner surfaces 1060 and 1062 and theouter surfaces 1064 and 1066 may be planar. By way of further example,in one embodiment, the inner surfaces 1060 and 1062 and the outersurfaces 1064 and 1066 may be non-planar. By way of further example, inone embodiment, the inner surfaces 1060 and 1062 and the outer surfaces1064 and 1066 may be substantially planar.

As described elsewhere herein, modes for affixing the at least onesecondary connecting member 166 embodied as electrode structures 110and/or counter-electrodes 112 to the inner surfaces 1060 and 1062 mayvary depending upon the energy storage device 100 or secondary battery102 and their intended use(s). As one exemplary embodiment shown in FIG.7, the top 1052 and the bottom 1054 of the population of electrodestructures 110 (i.e., electrode current collector 136, as shown) and thetop 1068 and bottom 1070 of the population of counter-electrodestructures 112 (i.e., counter-electrode current collector 140, as shown)may be affixed to the inner surface 1060 of the first secondary growthconstraint 158 and the inner surface 1062 of the second secondary growthconstraint 160 via a layer of glue 182. Similarly, a top 1076 and abottom 1078 of the first primary growth constraint 154, and a top 1080and a bottom 1082 of the second primary growth constraint 156 may beaffixed to the inner surface 1060 of the first secondary growthconstraint 158 and the inner surface 1062 of the second secondary growthconstraint 160 via a layer of glue 182.

Stated alternatively, in the embodiment shown in FIG. 7, the top 1052and the bottom 1054 of the population of electrode structures 110include a height H_(ES) that effectively meets both the inner surface1060 of the first secondary growth constraint 158 and the inner surface1062 of the second secondary growth constraint 160, and may be affixedto the inner surface 1060 of the first secondary growth constraint 158and the inner surface 1062 of the second secondary growth constraint 160via a layer of glue 182 in a flush embodiment. In addition, the top 1068and the bottom 1070 of the population of counter-electrode structures112 include a height H_(CES) that effectively meets both the innersurface 1060 of the first secondary growth constraint 158 and the innersurface 1062 of the second secondary growth constraint 160, and may beaffixed to the inner surface 1060 of the first secondary growthconstraint 158 and the inner surface 1062 of the second secondary growthconstraint 160 via a layer of glue 182 in a flush embodiment.

Further, in another exemplary embodiment, a top 1056 and a bottom 1058of the electrode backbones 134, and a top 1072 and a bottom 1074 of thecounter-electrode backbones 141 may be affixed to the inner surface 1060of the first secondary growth constraint 158 and the inner surface 1062of the second secondary growth constraint 160 via a layer of glue 182(not illustrated). Similarly, a top 1076 and a bottom 1078 of the firstprimary growth constraint 154, and a top 1080 and a bottom 1082 of thesecond primary growth constraint 156 may be affixed to the inner surface1060 of the first secondary growth constraint 158 and the inner surface1062 of the second secondary growth constraint 160 via a layer of glue182 (not illustrated with respect to the embodiment described in thisparagraph). Stated alternatively, the top 1056 and the bottom 1058 ofthe electrode backbones 134 include a height H_(ESB) that effectivelymeets both the inner surface 1060 of the first secondary growthconstraint 158 and the inner surface 1062 of the second secondary growthconstraint 160, and may be affixed to the inner surface 1060 of thefirst secondary growth constraint 158 and the inner surface 1062 of thesecond secondary growth constraint 160 via a layer of glue 182 in aflush embodiment. In addition, the top 1072 and the bottom 1074 of thecounter-electrode backbones 141 include a height H_(CESB) thateffectively meets both the inner surface 1060 of the first secondarygrowth constraint 158 and the inner surface 1062 of the second secondarygrowth constraint 160, and may be affixed to the inner surface 1060 ofthe first secondary growth constraint 158 and the inner surface 1062 ofthe second secondary growth constraint 160 via a layer of glue 182 in aflush embodiment.

Accordingly, in one embodiment, at least a portion of the population ofelectrode 110 and/or counter electrode structures 112, and/or theseparator 130 may serve as one or more secondary connecting members 166to connect the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, to one another in a secondary growth constraint system152, thereby providing a compact and space-efficient constraint systemto restrain growth of the electrode assembly 106 during cycling thereof.According to one embodiment, any portion of the electrode 110 and/orcounter-electrode structures 112, and/or separator 130 may serve as theone or more secondary connecting members 166, with the exception of anyportion of the electrode 110 and/or counter-electrode structure 112 thatswells in volume with charge and discharge cycles. That is, that portionof the electrode 110 and/or counter-electrode structure 112, such as theelectrode active material 132, that is the cause of the volume change inthe electrode assembly 106, typically will not serve as a part of theset of electrode constraints 108. In one embodiment, first and secondprimary growth constraints 154, 156, respectively, provided as a part ofthe primary growth constraint system 151 further inhibit growth in alongitudinal direction, and may also serve as secondary connectingmembers 166 to connect the first and second secondary growth constraints158, 160, respectively, of the secondary growth constraint system 152,thereby providing a cooperative, synergistic constraint system (i.e.,set of electrode constraints 108) for restraint of electrodegrowth/swelling.

Connections Via Counter-Electrode Structures

Referring now to FIGS. 9A-9C, a Cartesian coordinate system is shown forreference having a vertical axis (Z axis), a longitudinal axis (Y axis),and a transverse axis (X axis); wherein the X axis is oriented as comingout of the plane of the page); a separator 130, and a designation of thestacking direction D, as described above, and co-parallel with the Yaxis. More specifically, FIGS. 9A-9C each show a cross section, alongthe line A-A′ as in FIG. 1, where each first primary growth constraint154 and each second primary growth constraint 156 may be attached via alayer of glue 182 to the first secondary growth constraint 158 andsecond secondary growth constraint 160, as described above. In certainembodiments, as shown in each of FIGS. 9A-9C, non-affixed electrodestructures 110 may include electrode gaps 1084 between their tops andthe first secondary growth constraint 158, and their bottoms and thesecond secondary growth constraint 160. Stated alternatively, in certainembodiments, the top and the bottom 1052, 1054, respectively, of eachelectrode structure 110 may have a gap between the first and secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively. Further, in certainembodiments as shown in FIG. 9C, the top 1052 of the electrode structure110 may be in contact with, but not affixed to, the first secondarygrowth constraint 158, the bottom 1054 of the electrode structure 110may be in contact with, but not affixed to, the second secondary growthconstraint 160, or the top 1052 of the electrode structure 110 may be incontact with, but not affixed to, the first secondary growth constraint158 and the bottom 1054 of the electrode structure 110 may in in contactwith, but not affixed to, the second secondary growth constraint 160(not illustrated).

More specifically, in one embodiment, as shown in FIG. 9A, a pluralityof counter-electrode backbones 141 may be affixed to the inner surface1160 of the first secondary growth constraint 158 and the inner surface1062 of the second secondary growth constraint 160 via a layer of glue182. In certain embodiments, the plurality of counter-electrodebackbones 112 affixed to the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, may include a symmetrical patternabout a gluing axis A_(G) with respect to affixed counter-electrodebackbones 141. In certain embodiments, the plurality ofcounter-electrode backbones 141 affixed to the first and secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, may include anasymmetric or random pattern about a gluing axis A_(G) with respect toaffixed counter-electrode backbones 141.

In one exemplary embodiment, a first symmetric attachment pattern unitmay include two counter-electrode backbones 141 affixed to the firstsecondary growth constraint 158 and the second secondary growthconstraint 160, as above, where the two affixed counter-electrodebackbones 141 flank one electrode structure 110. Accordingly, the firstsymmetric attachment pattern unit may repeat, as needed, along thestacking direction D depending upon the energy storage device 100 or thesecondary battery 102 and the intended use(s) thereof. In anotherexemplary embodiment, a second symmetric attachment pattern unit mayinclude two counter-electrode backbones 141 affixed to the firstsecondary growth constraint 158 and the second secondary growthconstraint 160, as above, the two affixed counter-electrode backbones141 flanking two or more electrode structures 110 and one or morenon-affixed counter-electrode backbones 141. Accordingly, the secondsymmetric attachment pattern unit may repeat, as needed, along thestacking direction D depending upon the energy storage device 100 or thesecondary battery 102 and the intended use(s) thereof. Other exemplarysymmetric attachment pattern units have been contemplated, as would beappreciated by a person having skill in the art.

In one exemplary embodiment, a first asymmetric or random attachmentpattern may include two or more counter-electrode backbones 141 affixedto the first secondary growth constraint 158 and the second secondarygrowth constraint 160, as above, where the two or more affixedcounter-electrode backbones 141 may be individually designated asaffixed counter-electrode backbone 141A, affixed counter-electrodebackbone 141B, affixed counter-electrode backbone 141C, and affixedcounter-electrode backbone 141D. Affixed counter-electrode backbone 141Aand affixed counter-electrode backbone 141B may flank (1+x) electrodestructures 110, affixed counter-electrode backbone 141B and affixedcounter-electrode backbone 141C may flank (1+y) electrode structures110, and affixed counter-electrode backbone 141C and affixedcounter-electrode backbone 141D may flank (1+z) electrode structures110, wherein the total amount of electrode structures 110 (i.e., x, y,or z) between any two affixed counter-electrode backbones 141A-141D arenon-equal (i.e., x≠y≠z) and may be further separated by non-affixedcounter-electrode backbones 141. Stated alternatively, any number ofcounter-electrode backbones 141 may be affixed to the first secondarygrowth constraint 158 and the second secondary growth constraint 160, asabove, whereby between any two affixed counter-electrode backbones 141may include any non-equivalent number of electrode structures 110separated by non-affixed counter-electrode backbones 141. Otherexemplary asymmetric or random attachment patterns have beencontemplated, as would be appreciated by a person having skill in theart.

More specifically, in one embodiment, as shown in FIG. 9B, a pluralityof counter-electrode current collectors 140 may be affixed to the innersurface 1160 of the first secondary growth constraint 158 and the innersurface 1062 of the second secondary growth constraint 160 via a layerof glue 182. In certain embodiments, the plurality of counter-electrodecurrent collectors 140 affixed to the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158 and 160 may include a symmetrical pattern about a gluingaxis A_(G) with respect to affixed counter-electrode current collectors140. In certain embodiments, the plurality of counter-electrode currentcollectors 140 affixed to the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158 and 160, respectively, may include an asymmetric orrandom pattern about a gluing axis A_(G) with respect to affixedcounter-electrode current collectors 140.

In one exemplary embodiment, a first symmetric attachment pattern unitmay include two counter-electrode current collectors 140 affixed to thefirst secondary growth constraint 158 and the second secondary growthconstraint 160, as above, where the two affixed counter-electrodecurrent collectors 140 flank one electrode structure 110. Accordingly,the first symmetric attachment pattern unit may repeat, as needed, alongthe stacking direction D depending upon the energy storage device 100 orthe secondary battery 102 and the intended use(s) thereof. In anotherexemplary embodiment, a second symmetric attachment pattern unit mayinclude two counter-electrode current collectors 140 affixed to thefirst secondary growth constraint 158 and the second secondary growthconstraint 160, as above, the two affixed counter-electrode currentcollectors 140 flanking two or more electrode structures 110 and one ormore non-affixed counter-electrode current collectors 140. Accordingly,the second symmetric attachment pattern unit may repeat, as needed,along the stacking direction D depending upon the energy storage device100 or the secondary battery 102 and the intended use(s) thereof. Otherexemplary symmetric attachment pattern units have been contemplated, aswould be appreciated by a person having skill in the art.

In one exemplary embodiment, a first asymmetric or random attachmentpattern may include two or more counter-electrode current collectors 140affixed to the first secondary growth constraint 158 and the secondsecondary growth constraint 160, as above, where the two or more affixedcounter-electrode current collectors 140 may be individually designatedas affixed counter-electrode current collector 140A, affixedcounter-electrode current collector 140B, affixed counter-electrodecurrent collector 140C, and affixed counter-electrode current collector140D. Affixed counter-electrode current collector 140A and affixedcounter-electrode structure current collector 140B may flank (1+x)electrode structures 110, affixed counter-electrode current collector1406 and affixed counter-electrode current collector 140C may flank(1+y) electrode structures 110, and affixed counter-electrode currentcollector 140C and affixed counter-electrode current collector 140D mayflank (1+z) electrode structures 110, wherein the total amount ofelectrode structures 110 (i.e., x, y, or z) between any two affixedcounter-electrode current collectors 140A-140D are non-equal (i.e.,x≠y≠z) and may be further separated by non-affixed counter-electrodecurrent collectors 140. Stated alternatively, any number ofcounter-electrode current collectors 140 may be affixed to the firstsecondary growth constraint 158 and the second secondary growthconstraint 160, as above, whereby between any two affixedcounter-electrode current collectors 140 may include any non-equivalentnumber of electrode structures 110 separated by non-affixedcounter-electrode current collectors 140. Other exemplary asymmetric orrandom attachment patterns have been contemplated, as would beappreciated by a person having skill in the art.

Referring now to FIG. 10, a Cartesian coordinate system is shown forreference having a vertical axis (Z axis), a longitudinal axis (Y axis),and a transverse axis (X axis); wherein the X axis is oriented as comingout of the plane of the page); and a designation of the stackingdirection D, as described above, co-parallel with the Y axis. Morespecifically, FIG. 10 shows a cross section, along the line A-A′ as inFIG. 1, having the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 166,respectively, affixed to the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, via glue 182, as described above.Further, in one embodiment, illustrated is a plurality ofcounter-electrode current collectors 140 affixed to the first and secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, via glue 182. Morespecifically, the plurality of counter-electrode current collectors 140may include a bulbous or dogbone shaped cross section. Statedalternatively, the counter-electrode current collectors 140 may haveincreased current collector 140 width near the top 1072 and the bottom1074 of the counter-electrode backbone 141 with respect to a width ofthe current collector 140 near a midpoint between the top 1072 and thebottom 1074 of the counter-electrode backbone 141. That is, the bulbouscross-section of the counter-electrode current collector 140 widthtowards the top of the current collector 140 may taper towards themiddle of the counter-electrode current collector 140, and increaseagain to provide a bulbous cross-section towards the bottom of thecounter-electrode current collector 140. Accordingly, the application ofglue 182 may surround the bulbous or dogbone portions ofcounter-electrode current collector 140 and affix counter-electrodecurrent collector 140 to first and second secondary growth constraints158, 160, respectively, as described above. In this embodiment, thebulbous or dogbone shaped counter-electrode current collector 140 mayprovide an increased strength of attachment to the first and secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, compared to otherembodiments described herein. Also illustrated in FIG. 10 are electrodestructures 110 with corresponding electrode gaps 1084, each as describedabove, and separators 130. Further, in this embodiment, the plurality ofcounter-electrode current collectors 140 may be affixed in a symmetricor asymmetric pattern as described above. Further still, in thisembodiment, electrode structures 110 may be in contact with, but notaffixed to, the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, as described above.

Another mode for affixing the counter-electrode structures 112 to thefirst and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively,via glue 182 includes the use of notches within the inner surface 1060of the first secondary growth constraint 158 and the inner surface 1062of the second secondary growth constraint 160. Referring now to FIGS.11A-11C, a Cartesian coordinate system is shown for reference having avertical axis (Z axis), a longitudinal axis (Y axis), and a transverseaxis (X axis); wherein the X axis is oriented as coming out of the planeof the page); a separator 130, and a designation of the stackingdirection D, as described above, co-parallel with the Y axis. Morespecifically, FIGS. 11A-11C each show a cross section, along the lineA-A′ as in FIG. 1, where each first primary growth constraint 154 andeach second primary growth constraint 156 may be attached via a layer ofglue 182 to the first secondary growth constraint 158 and secondsecondary growth constraint 160, as described above. In certainembodiments, as shown in each of FIGS. 11A-11C, non-affixed electrodestructures 110 may include electrode gaps 1084 between their tops andthe first secondary growth constraint 158, and their bottoms and thesecond secondary growth constraint 160, as described in more detailabove.

More specifically, in one embodiment, as shown in FIG. 11A, a pluralityof counter-electrode backbones 141 may be affixed to the inner surface1060 of the first secondary growth constraint 158 and the inner surface1062 of the second secondary growth constraint 160 via a notch 1060 aand 1062 a, and a layer of glue 182. Accordingly, in certainembodiments, the plurality of counter-electrode backbones 141 affixed tothe first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, via notches 1060 a, 1062 a may include a symmetricalpattern about a gluing axis A_(G) with respect to affixedcounter-electrode backbones 141, as described above. In certainembodiments, the plurality of counter-electrode backbones 141 affixed tothe first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, via notches 1060 a, 1062 a may include an asymmetric orrandom pattern about a gluing axis A_(G) with respect to affixedcounter-electrode backbones 141, as described above.

In certain embodiments, notches 1060 a, 1062 a may have a depth withinthe first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively. For example, in one embodiment, a notch 1060 a or 1062 amay have a depth within the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, of 25% of the height of the firstand the second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively(i.e., the heights of the first and second secondary growth constraintsin this embodiment may be analogous to H₁₅₈ and H₁₆₀, as describedabove). By way of further example, in one embodiment, a notch 1060 a or1062 a may have a depth within the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, of 50% of the height of the firstand the second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively(i.e., the heights of the first and second secondary growth constraintsin this embodiment may be analogous to H₁₅₈ and H₁₆₀, as describedabove). By way of further example, in one embodiment, a notch 1060 a or1060 b may have a depth within the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, of 75% of the height of the firstand the second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively(i.e., the heights of the first and second secondary growth constraintsin this embodiment may be analogous to H₁₅₈ and H₁₆₀, as describedabove). By way of further example, in one embodiment, a notch 1060 a or1062 a may have a depth within the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, of 90% of the height of the firstand the second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively(i.e., the heights of the first and second secondary growth constraintsin this embodiment may be analogous to H₁₅₈ and H₁₆₀, as describedabove). Alternatively stated, each member of the plurality of thecounter-electrode backbones 141 may include a height H_(CESB) thateffectively meets and extends into both the inner surface 1060 of thefirst secondary growth constraint 158 and the inner surface 1062 of thesecond secondary growth constraint 160, and may be affixed into thenotch 1060 a of the first secondary growth constraint 158 and into thenotch 1062 a of the second secondary growth constraint 160 via glue 182in a notched embodiment.

Further, FIGS. 11A-11C also depict different embodiments for gluing theplurality of the counter-electrode backbones 141 in a notchedembodiment. For example, in one embodiment depicted in FIG. 11A, theplurality of counter-electrode backbones 141 may be glued 182 via acounter-electrode backbone top 1072 and a counter-electrode backbonebottom 1074. By way of further example, in one embodiment depicted inFIG. 11B, the plurality of counter-electrode backbones 141 may be glued182 via the lateral surfaces of the counter-electrode backbones 141. Byway of further example, in one embodiment depicted in FIG. 11C, theplurality of counter-electrode backbones 141 may be glued 182 via thetop 1072, the bottom 1074, and the lateral surfaces of thecounter-electrode backbones 141.

Further, another mode for affixing the counter-electrode structures 112to the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, via glue 182 includes, again, the use of notches 1060 aand 1062 a within the inner surface 1060 of the first secondary growthconstraint 158 and the inner surface 1062 of the second secondary growthconstraint 160. Referring now to FIGS. 12A-12C, a Cartesian coordinatesystem is shown for reference having a vertical axis (Z axis), alongitudinal axis (Y axis), and a transverse axis (X axis); wherein theX axis is oriented as coming out of the plane of the page); a separator130, and a designation of the stacking direction D, as described above,co-parallel with the Y axis. More specifically, FIGS. 12A-12C each showa cross section, along the line A-A′ as in FIG. 1, where each firstprimary growth constraint 154 and each second primary growth constraint156 may be attached via a layer of glue 182 to the first secondarygrowth constraint 158 and second secondary growth constraint 160, asdescribed above. In certain embodiments, as shown in each of FIGS.12A-12C, non-affixed electrode structures 110 may include electrode gaps1084 between their tops 1052 and the first secondary growth constraint158, and their bottoms 1054 and the second secondary growth constraint160, as described in more detail above.

More specifically, in one embodiment, as shown in FIG. 12A, a pluralityof counter-electrode current collectors 140 may be affixed to the innersurface 1060 of the first secondary growth constraint 158 and the innersurface 1062 of the second secondary growth constraint 160 via a notch1060 a and 1062 a, and a layer of glue 182. Accordingly, in certainembodiments, the plurality of counter-electrode current collectors 140affixed to the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, via notches 1060 a, 1062 a may include a symmetricalpattern about a gluing axis A_(G) with respect to affixedcounter-electrode current collectors 140, as described above. In certainembodiments, the plurality of counter-electrode current collectors 140affixed to the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, via notches 1060 a, 1062 a may include an asymmetric orrandom pattern about a gluing axis A_(G) with respect to affixedcounter-electrode current collectors 140, as described above.

In certain embodiments, notches 1060 a, 1062 a may have a depth withinthe first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively. For example, in one embodiment, a notch 1060 a or 1062 amay have a depth within the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, of 25% of the height of the firstand the second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively(i.e., the heights of the first and second secondary growth constraintsin this embodiment may be analogous to H₁₅₈ and H₁₆₀, as describedabove). By way of further example, in one embodiment, a notch 1060 a or1062 a may have a depth within the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, of 50% of the height of the firstand the second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively(i.e., the heights of the first and second secondary growth constraintsin this embodiment may be analogous to H₁₅₈ and H₁₆₀, as describedabove). By way of further example, in one embodiment, a notch 1060 a or1062 a may have a depth within the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, of 75% of the height of the firstand the second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively(i.e., the heights of the first and second secondary growth constraintsin this embodiment may be analogous to H₁₅₈ and H₁₆₀, as describedabove). By way of further example, in one embodiment, a notch 1060 a or1062 a may have a depth within the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, of 90% of the height of the firstand the second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively(i.e., the heights of the first and second secondary growth constraintsin this embodiment may be analogous to H₁₅₈ and H₁₆₀, as describedabove). Alternatively stated, each member of the plurality of thecounter-electrode current collectors 140 may effectively meet and extendinto both the inner surface 1060 of the first secondary growthconstraint 158 and the inner surface 1062 of the second secondary growthconstraint 160 (akin to the height H_(CESB), as described above), andmay be affixed into the notch 1060 a of the first secondary growthconstraint 158 and into the notch 1062 a of the second secondary growthconstraint 160 via glue 182 in a notched embodiment.

Further, FIGS. 12A-12C also depict different embodiments for gluing theplurality of the counter-electrode current collectors 140 in a notchedembodiment. For example, in one embodiment depicted in FIG. 12A, theplurality of counter-electrode current collectors 140 may be glued 182via a counter-electrode current collector top 1486 and acounter-electrode current collector bottom 1488. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment depicted in FIG. 12B, the plurality ofcounter-electrode current collectors 140 may be glued 182 via thelateral surfaces of the counter-electrode current collectors 140 (akinto the lateral surfaces of the counter-electrode backbones 141, asdescribed above). By way of further example, in one embodiment depictedin FIG. 12C, the plurality of counter-electrode current collectors 140may be glued 182 via the top 1486, the bottom 1488, and the lateralsurfaces of the counter-electrode current collectors 140.

In certain embodiments, a plurality of counter-electrode backbones 141or a plurality of counter-electrode current collectors 140 may beaffixed to the first secondary growth constraint 158 and the secondsecondary growth constraint 160 via a slot in each of the firstsecondary growth constraint 158 and the second secondary growthconstraint 160, via an interlocking connection embodiment. Referring nowto FIGS. 13A-13C and 14, a Cartesian coordinate system is shown forreference having a vertical axis (Z axis), a longitudinal axis (Y axis),and a transverse axis (X axis); wherein the X axis is oriented as comingout of the plane of the page); a separator 130, and a designation of thestacking direction D, as described above, co-parallel with the Y axis.More specifically, FIGS. 13A-13C and 14 each show a cross section, alongthe line A-A′ as in FIG. 1, where each first primary growth constraint154 and each second primary growth constraint 156 may be attached via alayer of glue 182 to the first secondary growth constraint 158 andsecond secondary growth constraint 160, as described above. In certainembodiments, as shown in each of FIGS. 13A-13C and 14, non-affixedelectrode structures 110 may include electrode gaps 1084 between theirtops 1052 and the first secondary growth constraint 158, and theirbottoms 1054 and the second secondary growth constraint 160, asdescribed in more detail above.

More specifically, in one embodiment shown in FIG. 13A, a plurality ofcounter-electrode backbones 141 may be affixed to the first secondarygrowth constraint 158 and the second secondary growth constraint 160 viaa slot 1060 b and 1062 b, and a layer of glue 182. Accordingly, incertain embodiments, the plurality of counter-electrode backbones 141affixed to the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, via slots 1060 b and 1062 b may include a symmetricalpattern about a gluing axis A_(G) with respect to affixedcounter-electrode backbones 141, as described above. In certainembodiments, the plurality of counter-electrode backbones 141 affixed tothe first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, via slots 1060 b and 1062 b may include an asymmetric orrandom pattern about a gluing axis A_(G) with respect to affixedcounter-electrode backbones 141, as described above.

In certain embodiments, slots 1060 b and 1062 b in each of the firstsecondary growth constraint 158 and the second secondary growthconstraint 160 may extend through the first secondary growth constraint158 and the second secondary growth constraint 160, respectively, inorder to receive the plurality of counter-electrode backbones 141 in aninterlocked embodiment. Stated alternatively, the plurality ofcounter-electrode backbones 141 include a height H_(CESB) that meets andextends entirely through both the first secondary growth constraintheight H₁₅₈, as described above, via slot 1060 b and the secondsecondary growth constraint height H₁₆₀, as described above via slot1062 b, thereby interlocking with both the first secondary growthconstraint 158 and the second secondary growth constraint 160 in aninterlocked embodiment. In certain embodiments, glue 182 may be used toaffix or reinforce the interlocking connection between the lateralsurfaces of the plurality of counter-electrode backbones 141 and theslots 1060 b, 1062 b, respectively.

More specifically, as illustrated by FIGS. 13B-13C, slots 1060 b and1062 b may be characterized by an aspect ratio. For example, in certainembodiments as illustrated in FIG. 13B, slot 1060 b may include a firstdimension S₁ defined as the distance between the top 1072 of thecounter-electrode backbone 141 and the outer surface 1064 of the firstsecondary growth constraint 158, and a second dimension S₂ defined asthe distance between two lateral surfaces of the counter-electrodebackbone 141, as described above. Accordingly, for example, in oneembodiment S₁ may be the same and/or similar dimension as the secondarygrowth constraint heights H₁₅₈ and H₁₆₀ described above, which in turnmay have a height selected in relation to a counter-electrode structureheight H_(CES). For example, in one embodiment, S₁ may be less than 50%of a counter-electrode height H_(CES). By way of further example, in oneembodiment, S₁ may be less than 25% of a counter-electrode heightH_(CES). By way of further example, in one embodiment, S₁ may be lessthan 10% of a counter-electrode height H_(CES), such as less than 5% ofa counter-electrode height H_(CES). Accordingly, for a counter-electrodeheight H_(CES) in the range of 0.05 mm to 10 mm, S₁ may have a value inthe range of 0.025 mm to 0.5 mm. Furthermore, in one embodiment, S₂ maybe at least 1 micrometer. By way of further example, in one embodiment,S₂ may generally not exceed 500 micrometers. By way of further example,in one embodiment, S₂ may be in the range of 1 to about 50 micrometers.As such, for example, in one embodiment, the aspect ratio S₁:S₂ may bein a range of from 0.05 to 500. By way of further example, in oneembodiment, the aspect ratio S₁:S₂ may be in a range of from 0.5 to 100.

Further, as illustrated in FIG. 13C, slot 1062 b may include a firstdimension S₃ defined as the distance between the bottom 1074 of thecounter-electrode backbone 141 and the outer surface 1066 of the secondsecondary growth constraint 160, and a second dimension S₄ defined asthe distance between two lateral surfaces of the counter-electrodebackbone 141, as described above. In one embodiment, S₃ may be the sameand/or similar dimension as the secondary growth constraint heights H₁₅₈and H₁₆₀ described above, which in turn may have a height selected inrelation to a counter-electrode height H_(CES). For example, in oneembodiment, S₃ may be less than 50% of a counter-electrode heightH_(CES). By way of further example, in one embodiment, S₃ may be lessthan 25% of a counter-electrode height H_(CES). By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment, S₃ may be less than 10% of acounter-electrode height H_(CES), such as less than 5% of acounter-electrode height H_(CES). Furthermore, in one embodiment S₂ maybe at least 1 micrometer. By way of further example, in one embodiment,S₂ may generally not exceed 500 micrometers. By way of further example,in one embodiment, S₂ may be in the range of 1 to about 50 micrometers.As such, for example, in one embodiment, the aspect ratio S₃:S₄ may bein a range of from 0.05 to 500. By way of further example, in oneembodiment, the aspect ratio S₃:S₄ may be in a range of from 0.5 to 100.

Referring now to FIG. 14, in another embodiment, a plurality ofcounter-electrode current collectors 140 may be affixed to the firstsecondary growth constraint 158 and the second secondary growthconstraint 160 via a slot 1060 b and 1062 b, and a layer of glue 182.Accordingly, in certain embodiments, the plurality of counter-electrodecurrent collectors 140 affixed to the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, via slots 1060 b, 1062 b may includea symmetrical pattern about a gluing axis A_(G) with respect to affixedcounter-electrode current collectors 140, as described above. In certainembodiments, the plurality of counter-electrode current collectors 140affixed to the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, via slots 1060 b, 1062 b may include an asymmetric orrandom pattern about a gluing axis A_(G) with respect to affixedcounter-electrode current collectors 140, as described above.

In certain embodiments, slots 1060 b, 1062 b in each of the firstsecondary growth constraint 158 and the second secondary growthconstraint 160 may extend through the first secondary growth constraint158 and the second secondary growth constraint 160, respectively, inorder to receive the plurality of counter-electrode current collectors140 in another interlocked embodiment. Stated alternatively, theplurality of counter-electrode current collectors 140 may effectivelymeet and extend entirely through both the first secondary growthconstraint 158 and the second secondary growth constraint 160 (akin tothe height H_(CESB), as described above), and may be affixed into slots1060 b and 1062 b via glue 182 in another interlocked embodiment.

Connections Via Electrode Structures

In alternative embodiments described below, the electrode structures 110may also be independently affixed to the first and second secondarygrowth constraints 158, 160, respectively. Referring now to FIGS.15A-15B, a Cartesian coordinate system is shown for reference having avertical axis (Z axis), a longitudinal axis (Y axis), and a transverseaxis (X axis); wherein the X axis is oriented as coming out of the planeof the page); a separator 130, and a designation of the stackingdirection D, as described above, co-parallel with the Y axis. Morespecifically, FIGS. 15A-15B each show a cross section, along the lineA-A′ as in FIG. 1, where each first primary growth constraint 154 andeach second primary growth constraint 156 may be attached via a layer ofglue 182 to the first secondary growth constraint 158 and secondsecondary growth constraint 160, as described above. In certainembodiments, as shown in each of FIGS. 15A-15B, non-affixedcounter-electrode structures 112 may include counter-electrode gaps 1086between their tops 1068 and the first secondary growth constraint 158,and their bottoms 1070 and the second secondary growth constraint 160.Stated alternatively, in certain embodiments, the top 1068 and thebottom 1070 of each counter-electrode structure 112 may have a gap 1086between the first and second secondary constraints 158, 160,respectively. Further, in certain embodiments, also shown in FIGS.15A-15B, the top 1068 of the counter-electrode structure 112 may be incontact with, but not affixed to, the first secondary growth constraint158, the bottom 1070 of the counter-electrode structure 112 may be incontact with, but not affixed to, the second secondary growth constraint160, or the top 1068 of the counter-electrode structure 112 may be incontact with, but not affixed to, the first secondary growth constraint158 and the bottom 1070 of the counter-electrode structure 112 may in incontact with, but not affixed to, the second secondary growth constraint160 (not illustrated).

More specifically, in one embodiment, as shown in FIG. 15A, a pluralityof electrode backbones 134 may be affixed to the inner surface 1060 ofthe first secondary growth constraint 158 and the inner surface 1062 ofthe second secondary growth constraint 160 via a layer of glue 182. Incertain embodiments, the plurality of electrode backbones 134 affixed tothe first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, may include a symmetrical pattern about a gluing axisA_(G) with respect to affixed electrode backbones 134. In certainembodiments, the plurality of electrode backbones 134 affixed to thefirst and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively,may include an asymmetric or random pattern about a gluing axis A_(G)with respect to affixed electrode backbones 134.

In one exemplary embodiment, a first symmetric attachment pattern unitmay include two electrode backbones 134 affixed to the first secondarygrowth constraint 158 and the second secondary growth constraint 160, asabove, where the two affixed electrode backbones 134 flank onecounter-electrode structure 112. Accordingly, the first symmetricattachment pattern unit may repeat, as needed, along the stackingdirection D depending upon the energy storage device 100 or thesecondary battery 102 and their intended use(s) thereof. In anotherexemplary embodiment, a second symmetric attachment pattern unit mayinclude two electrode backbones 134 affixed to the first secondarygrowth constraint 158 and the second secondary growth constraint 160, asabove, the two affixed electrode backbones 134 flanking two or morecounter-electrode structures 112 and one or more non-affixed electrodebackbones 134. Accordingly, the second symmetric attachment pattern unitmay repeat, as needed, along the stacking direction D depending upon theenergy storage device 100 or the secondary battery 102 and theirintended use(s) thereof. Other exemplary symmetric attachment patternunits have been contemplated, as would be appreciated by a person havingskill in the art.

In one exemplary embodiment, a first asymmetric or random attachmentpattern may include two or more electrode backbones 134 affixed to thefirst secondary growth constraint 158 and the second secondary growthconstraint 160, as above, where the two or more affixed electrodebackbones 134 may be individually designated as affixed electrodebackbone 134A, affixed electrode backbone 134B, affixed electrodebackbone 134C, and affixed electrode backbone 134D. Affixed electrodebackbone 134A and affixed electrode backbone 134B may flank (1+x)counter-electrode structures 112, affixed electrode backbone 134B andaffixed electrode backbone 134C may flank (1+y) counter-electrodestructures 112, and affixed electrode backbone 134C and affixedelectrode backbone 134D may flank (1+z) counter-electrode structures112, wherein the total amount of counter-electrode structures 112 (i.e.,x, y, or z) between any two affixed electrode backbones 134A-134D arenon-equal (i.e., x≠y≠z) and may be further separated by non-affixedelectrode backbones 134. Stated alternatively, any number of electrodebackbones 134 may be affixed to the first secondary growth constraint158 and the second secondary growth constraint 160, as above, wherebybetween any two affixed electrode backbones 134 may include anynon-equivalent number of counter-electrode structures 112 separated bynon-affixed electrode backbones 134. Other exemplary asymmetric orrandom attachment patterns have been contemplated, as would beappreciated by a person having skill in the art.

More specifically, in one embodiment, as shown in FIG. 15B, a pluralityof electrode current collectors 136 may be affixed to the inner surface1060 of the first secondary growth constraint 158 and the inner surface1062 of the second secondary growth constraint 160 via a layer of glue182. In certain embodiments, the plurality of electrode currentcollectors 136 affixed to the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, may include a symmetrical patternabout a gluing axis A_(G) with respect to affixed electrode currentcollectors 136. In certain embodiments, the plurality of electrodecurrent collectors 136 affixed to the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, may include an asymmetric or randompattern about a gluing axis A_(G) with respect to affixed electrodecurrent collectors 136.

In one exemplary embodiment, a first symmetric attachment pattern unitmay include two electrode current collectors 136 affixed to the firstsecondary growth constraint 158 and the second secondary growthconstraint 160, as above, where the two affixed electrode currentcollectors 136 flank one counter-electrode structure 112. Accordingly,the first symmetric attachment pattern unit may repeat, as needed, alongthe stacking direction D depending upon the energy storage device 100 orthe secondary battery 102 and their intended use(s) thereof. In anotherexemplary embodiment, a second symmetric attachment pattern unit mayinclude two electrode current collectors 136 affixed to the firstsecondary growth constraint 158 and the second secondary growthconstraint 160, as above, the two affixed electrode current collectors136 flanking two or more counter-electrode structures 112 and one ormore non-affixed electrode current collectors 136. Accordingly, thesecond symmetric attachment pattern unit may repeat, as needed, alongthe stacking direction D depending upon the energy storage device 100 orthe secondary battery 102 and their intended use(s) thereof. Otherexemplary symmetric attachment pattern units have been contemplated, aswould be appreciated by a person having skill in the art.

In one exemplary embodiment, a first asymmetric or random attachmentpattern may include two or more electrode current collectors 136 affixedto the first secondary growth constraint 158 and the second secondarygrowth constraint 160, as above, where the two or more affixed electrodecurrent collectors 136 may be individually designated as affixedelectrode current collector 136A, affixed electrode current collector136B, affixed electrode current collector 136C, and affixed electrodecurrent collector 136D. Affixed electrode current collector 136A andaffixed electrode current collector 1366 may flank (1+x)counter-electrode structures 112, affixed electrode current collector136B and affixed electrode current collector 136C may flank (1+y)counter-electrode structures 112, and affixed electrode currentcollector 136C and affixed electrode current collector 136D may flank(1+z) counter-electrode structures 112, wherein the total amount ofcounter-electrode structures 112 (i.e., x, y, or z) between any twoaffixed electrode current collectors 136A-136D are non-equal (i.e.,x≠y≠z) and may be further separated by non-affixed electrode currentcollectors 136. Stated alternatively, any number of electrode currentcollectors 136 may be affixed to the first secondary growth constraint158 and the second secondary growth constraint 160, as above, wherebybetween any two affixed electrode current collectors 136 may include anynon-equivalent number of counter-electrode structures 112 separated bynon-affixed electrode current collectors 136. Other exemplary asymmetricor random attachment patterns have been contemplated, as would beappreciated by a person having skill in the art.

Another mode for affixing the electrode structures 110 to the first andsecond secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, via glue 182includes the use of notches 1060 a, 1062 a within the inner surface 1060of the first secondary growth constraint 158 and the inner surface 1062of the second secondary growth constraint 160. Referring now to FIGS.16A-16C, a Cartesian coordinate system is shown for reference having avertical axis (Z axis), a longitudinal axis (Y axis), and a transverseaxis (X axis); wherein the X axis is oriented as coming out of the planeof the page); a separator 130, and a designation of the stackingdirection D, as described above, co-parallel with the Y axis. Morespecifically, FIGS. 16A-16C each show a cross section, along the lineA-A′ as in FIG. 1, where each first primary growth constraint 154 andeach second primary growth constraint 156 may be attached via a layer ofglue 182 to the first secondary growth constraint 158 and secondsecondary growth constraint 160, as described above. In certainembodiments, as shown in each of FIGS. 16A-16C, non-affixedcounter-electrode structures 112 may include counter-electrode gaps 1086between their tops 1068 and the first secondary growth constraint 158,and their bottoms 1070 and the second secondary growth constraint 160,as described in more detail above.

More specifically, in one embodiment, as shown in FIG. 16A, a pluralityof electrode current collectors 136 may be affixed to the inner surface1060 of the first secondary growth constraint 158 and the inner surface1062 of the second secondary growth constraint 160 via a notch 1060 aand 1062 a, and a layer of glue 182. Accordingly, in certainembodiments, the plurality of electrode current collectors 136 affixedto the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, via notches 1060 a, 1062 a may include a symmetricalpattern about a gluing axis A_(G) with respect to affixed electrodecurrent collectors 136, as described above. In certain embodiments, theplurality of electrode current collectors 136 affixed to the first andsecond secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, via notches1060 a, 1062 a may include an asymmetric or random pattern about agluing axis A_(G) with respect to affixed electrode current collectors136, as described above.

In certain embodiments, notches 1060 a, 1062 a may have a depth withinthe first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively. For example, in one embodiment, a notch 1060 a, 1062 a mayhave a depth within the first and second secondary growth constraints158, 160, respectively, of 25% of the height of the first and secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively (i.e., the heightsof the first and second secondary growth constraints in this embodimentmay be analogous to H₁₅₈ and H₁₆₀, as described above). By way offurther example, in one embodiment, a notch 1060 a, 1062 a may have adepth within the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, of 50% of the height of the first and second secondarygrowth constraints 158, 160, respectively (i.e., the heights of thefirst and second secondary growth constraints in this embodiment may beanalogous to H₁₅₈ and H₁₆₀, as described above). By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment, a notch 1060 a, 1062 a may have a depthwithin the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, of 75% of the height of the first and second secondarygrowth constraints 158, 160, respectively (i.e., the heights of thefirst and second secondary growth constraints in this embodiment may beanalogous to H₁₅₈ and H₁₆₀, as described above). By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment, a notch 1060 a, 1062 a may have a depthwithin the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, of 90% of the height of the first and second secondarygrowth constraints 158, 160, respectively (i.e., the heights of thefirst and second secondary growth constraints in this embodiment may beanalogous to H₁₅₈ and H₁₆₀, as described above). Alternatively stated,each member of the plurality of the electrode current collectors 136 mayeffectively meet and extend into both the inner surface 1060 of thefirst secondary growth constraint 158 and the inner surface 1062 of thesecond secondary growth constraint 160 (akin to the height H_(CESB), asdescribed above), and may be affixed into the notch 1060 a of the firstsecondary growth constraint 158 and into the notch 1062 a of the secondsecondary growth constraint 160 via glue 182 in a notched embodiment.

Further, FIGS. 16A-16C also depict different embodiments for gluing theplurality of the electrode current collectors 136 in a notchedembodiment. For example, in one embodiment depicted in FIG. 16A, theplurality of electrode current collectors 136 may be glued 182 via anelectrode current collector top 1892 and an electrode current collectorbottom 1894. By way of further example, in one embodiment depicted inFIG. 16B, the plurality of electrode current collectors 136 may be glued182 via the lateral surfaces of the electrode current collectors 136(akin to the lateral surfaces of the electrode backbones 134, asdescribed above). By way of further example, in one embodiment depictedin FIG. 16C, the plurality of electrode current collectors 136 may beglued 182 via the top 1892, the bottom 1894, and the lateral surfaces ofthe electrode current collectors 136.

In certain embodiments, a plurality of electrode current collectors 136may be affixed to the first secondary growth constraint 158 and thesecond secondary growth constraint 160 via a slot 1060 b, 1062 b in eachof the first secondary growth constraint 158 and the second secondarygrowth constraint 160, via an interlocking connection embodiment.Referring now to FIG. 17, a Cartesian coordinate system is shown forreference having a vertical axis (Z axis), a longitudinal axis (Y axis),and a transverse axis (X axis); wherein the X axis is oriented as comingout of the plane of the page); a separator 130, and a designation of thestacking direction D, as described above, co-parallel with the Y axis.More specifically, FIG. 17 shows a cross section, along the line A-A′ asin FIG. 1, where first primary growth constraint 154 and second primarygrowth constraint 156 may be attached via a layer of glue 182 to thefirst secondary growth constraint 158 and second secondary growthconstraint 160, as described above. In certain embodiments, as shown inFIG. 17, non-affixed counter-electrode structures 112 may includecounter-electrode gaps 1086 between their tops 1068 and the firstsecondary growth constraint 158, and their bottoms 1070 and the secondsecondary growth constraint 160, as described in more detail above.

More specifically, in one embodiment shown in FIG. 17, a plurality ofelectrode current collectors 136 may be affixed to the first secondarygrowth constraint 158 and the second secondary growth constraint 160 viaa slot 1060 b and 1062 b and a layer of glue 182. Accordingly, incertain embodiments, the plurality of electrode current collectors 136affixed to the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160,respectively, via slots 1060 b, 1062 b may include a symmetrical patternabout a gluing axis A_(G) with respect to affixed electrode currentcollectors 136, as described above. In certain embodiments, theplurality of electrode current collectors 136 affixed to the first andsecond secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, via slots1060 b, 1062 b may include an asymmetric or random pattern about agluing axis A_(G) with respect to affixed electrode current collectors136, as described above.

In certain embodiments, slots 1060 b, 1062 b in each of the firstsecondary growth constraint 158 and the second secondary growthconstraint 160 may extend through the first secondary growth constraint158 and the second secondary growth constraint 160, respectively, inorder to receive the plurality of electrode current collectors 136 in aninterlocked embodiment. Stated alternatively, the plurality of electrodecurrent collectors 136 may effectively meet and extend entirely throughboth the first secondary growth constraint 158 and the second secondarygrowth constraint 160 (akin to the height H_(CESB), as described above),and may be affixed into slots 1060 b and 1062 b via glue 182 in anotherinterlocked embodiment.

Connections Via Primary Growth Constraints

In another embodiment, a constrained electrode assembly 106 may includea set of electrode constraints 108 wherein the secondary connectingmember 166 includes the first and second primary growth constraints 154,156 respectively, and yet still restrains growth of an electrodeassembly 106 in both the longitudinal direction (i.e., along the Y axis)and/or the stacking direction D, and the vertical direction (i.e., alongthe Z axis) simultaneously, as described above. Referring now to FIGS.18A-18B, a Cartesian coordinate system is shown for reference having avertical axis (Z axis), a longitudinal axis (Y axis), and a transverseaxis (X axis); wherein the X axis is oriented as coming out of the planeof the page; a separator 130, and a designation of the stackingdirection D, as described above, co-parallel with the Y axis. Morespecifically, FIGS. 18A-18B each show a cross section, along the lineA-A′ as in FIG. 1, of a set of electrode constraints 108, including oneembodiment of both a primary growth constraint system 151 and oneembodiment of a secondary growth constraint system 152. Primary growthconstraint system 151 includes a first primary growth constraint 154 anda second primary growth constraint 156, as described above, and a firstprimary connecting member 162 and a second primary connecting member164, as described above. Secondary growth constraint system 152 includesa first secondary growth constraint 158, a second secondary growthconstraint 160, and a secondary connecting member 166 embodied as firstprimary growth constraint 154 and/or second primary growth constraint156; therefore, in this embodiment, secondary connecting member 166,first primary growth constraint 154, and second primary growthconstraint 156 are interchangeable. Further, in this embodiment, firstprimary connecting member 162 and first secondary growth constraint 158are interchangeable, as described above. Further still, in thisembodiment, second primary connecting member 164 and second secondarygrowth constraint 160 are interchangeable, as described above.

First primary growth constraint 154 and second primary growth constraint156 may be attached via a layer of glue 182 to the first secondarygrowth constraint 158 and second secondary growth constraint 160, asdescribed above. Stated alternatively, in the embodiments shown in FIGS.18A-18B, the set of electrode constraints 108 include a first primaryconnecting member 162 that may be the first secondary growth constraint158 in a hybridized embodiment, and a second primary connecting member164 that may be the second secondary growth constraint 160 in ahybridized embodiment. As such, the first and second primary connectingmembers 162, 164, respectively, may be under tension when restraininggrowth in the longitudinal direction, and may also function as first andsecond secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively (i.e.,compression members) when restraining growth in the vertical direction.

More specifically, in one embodiment as shown in FIG. 18A, non-affixedelectrode structures 110 and non-affixed counter-electrode structures1128 may include corresponding electrode gaps 1084 and correspondingcounter-electrode gaps 1086 between each of their tops, respectively(i.e., 1052 and 1068), and the first secondary growth constraint 158,and each of their bottoms, respectively (i.e., 1054 and 1070), and thesecond secondary growth constraint 160, as described in more detailabove.

More specifically, in one embodiment as shown in FIG. 18B, the set ofelectrode constraints 108 further includes a second separator 130 aadjacent to both the hybridized first secondary growth constraint158/first primary connecting member 162 and the hybridized secondsecondary growth constraint 160/second primary connecting member 164.

Fused Constraint System

In some embodiments, a set of electrode constraints 108 may be fusedtogether. For example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraintsystem 151 may be fused with the secondary growth constraint system 152.By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growthconstraint system 152 may be fused with the primary growth constraintsystem 151. Stated alternatively, aspects of the primary growthconstraint system 151 (e.g., the first and second primary growthconstraints 154, 156, respectively) may coexist (i.e., may be fusedwith) aspects of the secondary growth constraint system 152 (e.g., thefirst and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively) ina unibody-type system. Referring now to FIG. 19, a Cartesian coordinatesystem is shown for reference having a vertical axis (Z axis), alongitudinal axis (Y axis), and a transverse axis (X axis); wherein theX axis is oriented as coming out of the plane of the page; a separator130, and a designation of the stacking direction D, as described above,co-parallel with the Y axis. More specifically, FIG. 19 shows a crosssection, along the line A-A′ as in FIG. 1, of a fused electrodeconstraint 108, including one embodiment of a primary growth constraintsystem 151 fused with one embodiment of a secondary growth constraintsystem 152.

Further illustrated in FIG. 19, in one embodiment, are members of theelectrode population 110 having an electrode active material layer 132,and an electrode current collector 136. Similarly, in one embodiment,illustrated in FIG. 19 are members of the counter-electrode population112 having a counter-electrode active material layer 138, and acounter-electrode current collector 140. For ease of illustration, onlytwo members of the electrode population 110 and three members of thecounter-electrode population 112 are depicted; in practice, however, anenergy storage device 100 or a secondary battery 102 using the inventivesubject matter herein may include additional members of the electrode110 and counter-electrode 112 populations depending on the applicationof the energy storage device 100 or secondary battery 102, as describedabove. More specifically, illustrated in the fused embodiment of FIG.19, the secondary connecting member 166 may be embodied as the electrodeand/or counter-electrode backbones 134, 141, respectively, as describedabove, but each may be fused to each of the first and second secondarygrowth constraints 158, 160, respectively, as described above.Similarly, the first primary growth constraint 154 and the secondprimary growth constraint 156 may be fused to the first and secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, thereby ultimatelyforming a fused or unibody constraint 108.

Secondary Battery

Referring now to FIG. 20, illustrated is an exploded view of oneembodiment of a secondary battery 102 having a plurality of sets ofelectrode constraints 108 a of the present disclosure. The secondarybattery 102 includes battery enclosure 104 and a set of electrodeassemblies 106 a within the battery enclosure 104, each of the electrodeassemblies 106 having a first longitudinal end surface 116, an opposingsecond longitudinal end surface 118 (i.e., separated from firstlongitudinal end surface 116 along the Y axis the Cartesian coordinatesystem shown), as described above. Each electrode assembly 106 includesa population of electrode structures 110 and a population ofcounter-electrode structures 112, stacked relative to each other withineach of the electrode assemblies 106 in a stacking direction D, stateddifferently, the populations of electrode 110 and counter-electrode 112structures are arranged in an alternating series of electrodes 110 andcounter-electrodes 112 with the series progressing in the stackingdirection D between first and second longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118,respectively (see, e.g., FIG. 2A; as illustrated in FIG. 2A and FIG. 20,stacking direction D parallels the Y axis of the Cartesian coordinatesystem(s) shown), as described above. In addition, the stackingdirection D within an individual electrode assembly 106 is perpendicularto the direction of stacking of a collection of electrode assemblies 106within a set 106 a (i.e., an electrode assembly stacking direction);stated differently, the electrode assemblies 106 are disposed relativeto each other in a direction within a set 106 a that is perpendicular tothe stacking direction D within an individual electrode assembly 106(e.g., the electrode assembly stacking direction is in a directioncorresponding to the Z axis of the Cartesian coordinate system shown,whereas the stacking direction D within individual electrode assemblies106 is in a direction corresponding to the Y axis of the Cartesiancoordinate system shown).

While the set of electrode assemblies 106 a depicted in the embodimentshown in FIG. 20 contains individual electrode assemblies 106 having thesame general size, one or more of the individual electrode assemblies106 may also and/or alternatively have different sizes in at least onedimension thereof, than the other electrode assemblies 106 in the set106 a. For example, according to one embodiment, the electrodeassemblies 106 that are stacked together to form the set 106 a providedin the secondary battery 102 may have different maximum widths W_(EA) inthe longitudinal direction (i.e., stacking direction D) of each assembly106. According to another embodiment, the electrode assemblies 106making up the stacked set 106 a provided in the secondary battery 102may have different maximum lengths L_(EA) along the transverse axis thatis orthogonal to the longitudinal axis. By way of further example, inone embodiment, each electrode assembly 106 that is stacked together toform the set of electrode assemblies 106 a in the secondary battery 102has a maximum width W_(EA) along the longitudinal axis and a maximumlength L_(EA) along the transverse axis that is selected to provide anarea of L_(EA)×W_(EA) that decreases along a direction in which theelectrode assemblies 106 are stacked together to form the set ofelectrode assemblies 106 a. For example, the maximum width W_(EA) andmaximum length L_(EA) of each electrode assembly 106 may be selected tobe less than that of an electrode assembly 106 adjacent thereto in afirst direction in which the assemblies 106 are stacked, and to begreater than that of an electrode assembly 106 adjacent thereto in asecond direction that is opposite thereto, such that the electrodeassemblies 106 are stacked together to form a secondary battery 102having a set of electrode assemblies 106 a in a pyramidal shape.Alternatively, the maximum lengths L_(EA) and maximum widths W_(EA) foreach electrode assembly 106 can be selected to provide different shapesand/or configurations for the stacked electrode assembly set 106 a. Themaximum vertical height H_(EA) for one or more of the electrodeassemblies 106 can also and/or alternatively be selected to be differentfrom other assemblies 106 in the set 106 a and/or to provide a stackedset 106 a having a predetermined shape and/or configuration.

Tabs 190, 192 project out of the battery enclosure 104 and provide anelectrical connection between the electrode assemblies 106 of set 106 aand an energy supply or consumer (not shown). More specifically, in thisembodiment tab 190 is electrically connected to tab extension 191 (e.g.,using an electrically conductive glue), and tab extension 191 iselectrically connected to the electrodes 110 comprised by each of theelectrode assemblies 106. Similarly, tab 192 is electrically connectedto tab extension 193 (e.g., using an electrically conductive glue), andtab extension 193 is electrically connected to the counter-electrodes112 comprised by each of electrode assemblies 106.

Each electrode assembly 106 in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 20 hasan associated primary growth constraint system 151 to restrain growth inthe longitudinal direction (i.e., stacking direction D). Alternatively,in one embodiment, a plurality of electrode assemblies 106 making up aset 106 a may share at least a portion of the primary growth constraintsystem 151. In the embodiment as shown, each primary growth constraintsystem 151 includes first and second primary growth constraints 154,156, respectively, that may overlie first and second longitudinal endsurfaces 116, 118, respectively, as described above; and first andsecond opposing primary connecting members 162, 164, respectively, thatmay overlie lateral surfaces 142, as described above. First and secondopposing primary connecting members 162, 164, respectively, may pullfirst and second primary growth constraints 154, 156, respectively,towards each other, or alternatively stated, assist in restraininggrowth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction, andprimary growth constraints 154, 156 may apply a compressive or restraintforce to the opposing first and second longitudinal end surfaces 116,118, respectively. As a result, expansion of the electrode assembly 106in the longitudinal direction is inhibited during formation and/orcycling of the battery 102 between charged and discharged states.Additionally, primary growth constraint system 151 exerts a pressure onthe electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction (i.e., stackingdirection D) that exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrodeassembly 106 in either of the two directions that are mutuallyperpendicular to each other and are perpendicular to the longitudinaldirection (e.g., as illustrated, the longitudinal direction correspondsto the direction of the Y axis, and the two directions that are mutuallyperpendicular to each other and to the longitudinal direction correspondto the directions of the X axis and the Z axis, respectively, of theillustrated Cartesian coordinate system).

Further, each electrode assembly 106 in the embodiment illustrated inFIG. 20 has an associated secondary growth constraint system 152 torestrain growth in the vertical direction (i.e., expansion of theelectrode assembly 106, electrodes 110, and/or counter-electrodes 112 inthe vertical direction (i.e., along the Z axis of the Cartesiancoordinate system)). Alternatively, in one embodiment, a plurality ofelectrode assemblies 106 making up a set 106 a share at least a portionof the secondary growth constraint system 152. Each secondary growthconstraint system 152 includes first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, that may overlie correspondinglateral surfaces 142, respectively, and at least one secondaryconnecting member 166, each as described in more detail above. Secondaryconnecting members 166 may pull first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, towards each other, or alternativelystated, assist in restraining growth of the electrode assembly 106 inthe vertical direction, and first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160, respectively, may apply a compressive or restraintforce to the lateral surfaces 142), each as described above in moredetail. As a result, expansion of the electrode assembly 106 in thevertical direction is inhibited during formation and/or cycling of thebattery 102 between charged and discharged states. Additionally,secondary growth constraint system 152 exerts a pressure on theelectrode assembly 106 in the vertical direction (i.e., parallel to theZ axis of the Cartesian coordinate system) that exceeds the pressuremaintained on the electrode assembly 106 in either of the two directionsthat are mutually perpendicular to each other and are perpendicular tothe vertical direction (e.g., as illustrated, the vertical directioncorresponds to the direction of the Z axis, and the two directions thatare mutually perpendicular to each other and to the vertical directioncorrespond to the directions of the X axis and the Y axis, respectively,of the illustrated Cartesian coordinate system).

Further still, each electrode assembly 106 in the embodiment illustratedin FIG. 20 has an associated primary growth constraint system 151—and anassociated secondary growth constraint system 152—to restrain growth inthe longitudinal direction and the vertical direction, as described inmore detail above. Furthermore, according to certain embodiments, theelectrode and/or counter-electrode tabs 190, 192, respectively, and tabextensions 191, 193 can serve as a part of the tertiary growthconstraint system 155. For example, in certain embodiments, the tabextensions 191, 193 may extend along the opposing transverse surfaceregions 144, 146 to act as a part of the tertiary constraint system 155,such as the first and second tertiary growth constraints 157, 159. Thetab extensions 191, 193 can be connected to the primary growthconstraints 154, 156 at the longitudinal ends 117, 119 of the electrodeassembly 106, such that the primary growth constraints 154, 156 serve asthe at least one tertiary connecting member 165 that places the tabextensions 191, 193 in tension with one another to compress theelectrode assembly 106 along the transverse direction, and act as firstand second tertiary growth constraints 157, 159, respectively.Conversely, the tabs 190, 192 and/or tab extensions 191, 193 can alsoserve as the first and second primary connecting members 162, 164,respectively, for the first and second primary growth constraints 154,156, respectively, according to one embodiment. In yet anotherembodiment, the tabs 190, 192 and/or tab extensions 191, 193 can serveas a part of the secondary growth constraint system 152, such as byforming a part of the at least one secondary connecting member 166connecting the secondary growth constraints 158, 160. Accordingly, thetabs 190, 192 and/or tab extensions 191, 193 can assist in restrainingoverall macroscopic growth of the electrode assembly 106 by eitherserving as a part of one or more of the primary and secondary constraintsystems 151, 152, respectively, and/or by forming a part of a tertiarygrowth constraint system 155 to constrain the electrode assembly 106 ina direction orthogonal to the direction being constrained by one or moreof the primary and secondary growth constraint systems 151, 152,respectively.

To complete the assembly of the secondary battery 102, battery enclosure104 is filled with a non-aqueous electrolyte (not shown) and lid 104 ais folded over (along fold line, FL) and sealed to upper surface 104 b.When fully assembled, the sealed secondary battery 102 occupies a volumebounded by its exterior surfaces (i.e., the displacement volume), thesecondary battery enclosure 104 occupies a volume corresponding to thedisplacement volume of the battery (including lid 104 a) less itsinterior volume (i.e., the prismatic volume bounded by interior surfaces104 c, 104 d, 104 e, 104 f, 104 g and lid 104 a) and each growthconstraint 151, 152 of set 106 a occupies a volume corresponding to itsrespective displacement volume. In combination, therefore, the batteryenclosure 104 and growth constraints 151, 152 occupy no more than 75% ofthe volume bounded by the outer surface of the battery enclosure 104(i.e., the displacement volume of the battery). For example, in one suchembodiment, the growth constraints 151, 152 and battery enclosure 104,in combination, occupy no more than 60% of the volume bounded by theouter surface of the battery enclosure 104. By way of further example,in one such embodiment, the constraints 151, 152 and battery enclosure104, in combination, occupy no more than 45% of the volume bounded bythe outer surface of the battery enclosure 104. By way of furtherexample, in one such embodiment, the constraints 151, 152 and batteryenclosure 104, in combination, occupy no more than 30% of the volumebounded by the outer surface of the battery enclosure 104. By way offurther example, in one such embodiment, the constraints 151, 152 andbattery enclosure 104, in combination, occupy no more than 20% of thevolume bounded by the outer surface of the battery enclosure.

For ease of illustration in FIG. 20, secondary battery 102 includes onlyone set 106 a of electrode assemblies 106 and the set 106 a includesonly six electrode assemblies 106. In practice, the secondary battery102 may include more than one set of electrode assemblies 106 a, witheach of the sets 106 a being disposed laterally relative to each other(e.g., in a relative direction lying within the X-Y plane of theCartesian coordinate system of FIG. 20) or vertically relative to eachother (e.g., in a direction substantially parallel to the Z axis of theCartesian coordinate system of FIG. 20). Additionally, in each of theseembodiments, each of the sets of electrode assemblies 106 a may includeone or more electrode assemblies 106. For example, in certainembodiments, the secondary battery 102 may comprise one, two, or moresets of electrode assemblies 106 a, with each such set 106 a includingone or more electrode assemblies 106 (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 15, ormore electrode assemblies 106 within each such set 106 a) and, when thebattery 102 includes two or more such sets 106 a, the sets 106 a may belaterally or vertically disposed relative to other sets of electrodeassemblies 106 a included in the secondary battery 102. In each of thesevarious embodiments, each individual electrode assembly 106 may have itsown growth constraint(s), as described above (i.e., a 1:1 relationshipbetween electrode assemblies 106 and constraints 151, 152), two moreelectrode assemblies 106 may have a common growth constraint(s) 151,152, as described above (i.e., a set of constraints 108 for two or moreelectrode assemblies 106), or two or more electrode assemblies 106 mayshare components of a growth constraint(s) 151, 152 (i.e., two or moreelectrode assemblies 106 may have a common compression member (e.g.,second secondary growth constraint 158) and/or tension members 166, forexample, as in the fused embodiment, as described above).

Other Battery Components

In certain embodiments, the set of electrode constraints 108, includinga primary growth constraint system 151 and a secondary growth constraintsystem 152, as described above, may be derived from a sheet 2000 havinga length L₁, width W₁, and thickness t₁, as shown for example in FIG.20. More specifically, to form a primary growth constraint system 151, asheet 2000 may be wrapped around an electrode assembly 106 and folded atfolded at edges 2001 to enclose the electrode assembly 106.Alternatively, in one embodiment, the sheet 2000 may be wrapped around aplurality of electrode assemblies 106 that are stacked to form anelectrode assembly set 106 a. The edges of the sheet may overlap eachother, and are welded, glued, or otherwise secured to each other to forma primary growth constraint system 151 including first primary growthconstraint 154 and second primary growth constraint 156, and firstprimary connecting member 162 and second primary connecting member 164.In this embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 has avolume corresponding to the displacement volume of sheet 2000 (i.e., themultiplication product of L₁, W₁ and t₁). In one embodiment, the atleast one primary connecting member is stretched in the stackingdirection D to place the member in tension, which causes a compressiveforce to be exerted by the first and second primary growth constraints.Alternatively, the at least one secondary connecting member can bestretched in the second direction to place the member in tension, whichcauses a compressive force to be exerted by the first and secondsecondary growth constraints. In an alternative embodiment, instead ofstretching the connecting members to place them in tension, theconnecting members and/or growth constraints or other portion of one ormore of the primary and secondary growth constraint systems may bepre-tensioned prior to installation over and/or in the electrodeassembly. In another alternative embodiment, the connecting membersand/or growth constraints and/or other portions of one or more of theprimary and secondary growth constraint systems are not initially undertension at the time of installation into and/or over the electrodeassembly, but rather, formation of the battery causes the electrodeassembly to expand and induce tension in portions of the primary and/orsecondary growth constraint systems such as the connecting membersand/or growth constraints. (i.e., self-tensioning).

Sheet 2000 may comprise any of a wide range of compatible materialscapable of applying the desired force to the electrode assembly 106. Ingeneral, the primary growth constraint system 151 will typicallycomprise a material that has an ultimate tensile strength of at least10,000 psi (>70 MPa), that is compatible with the battery electrolyte,does not significantly corrode at the floating or anode potential forthe battery 102, and does not significantly react or lose mechanicalstrength at 45° C., and even up to 70° C. For example, the primarygrowth constraint system 151 may comprise any of a wide range of metals,alloys, ceramics, glass, plastics, or a combination thereof (i.e., acomposite). In one exemplary embodiment, primary growth constraintsystem 151 comprises a metal such as stainless steel (e.g., SS 316, 440Cor 440C hard), aluminum (e.g., aluminum 7075-T6, hard H18), titanium(e.g., 6Al-4V), beryllium, beryllium copper (hard), copper (O₂ free,hard), nickel; in general, however, when the primary growth constraintsystem 151 comprises metal it is generally preferred that it beincorporated in a manner that limits corrosion and limits creating anelectrical short between the electrodes 110 and counter-electrodes 112.In another exemplary embodiment, the primary growth constraint system151 comprises a ceramic such as alumina (e.g., sintered or CoorstekAD96), zirconia (e.g., Coorstek YZTP), yttria-stabilized zirconia (e.g.,ENrG E-Strate®). In another exemplary embodiment, the primary growthconstraint system 151 comprises a glass such as Schott D263 temperedglass. In another exemplary embodiment, the primary growth constraintsystem 151 comprises a plastic such as polyetheretherketone (PEEK)(e.g., Aptiv 1102), PEEK with carbon (e.g., Victrex 90HMF40 or Xycomp1000-04), polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) with carbon (e.g., Tepex Dynalite207), polyetheretherketone (PEEK) with 30% glass, (e.g., Victrex 90HMF40or Xycomp 1000-04), polyimide (e.g., Kapton®). In another exemplaryembodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 comprises acomposite such as E Glass Std Fabric/Epoxy, 0 deg, E Glass UD/Epoxy, 0deg, Kevlar Std Fabric/Epoxy, 0 deg, Kevlar UD/Epoxy, 0 deg, Carbon StdFabric/Epoxy, 0 deg, Carbon UD/Epoxy, 0 deg, Toyobo Zylon® HMFiber/Epoxy. In another exemplary embodiment, the primary growthconstraint system 151 comprises fibers such as Kevlar 49 Aramid Fiber, SGlass Fibers, Carbon Fibers, Vectran UM LCP Fibers, Dyneema, Zylon.

Thickness (t₁) of the primary growth constraint system 151 will dependupon a range of factors including, for example, the material(s) ofconstruction of the primary growth constraint system 151, the overalldimensions of the electrode assembly 106, and the composition of abattery anode and cathode. In some embodiments, for example, the primarygrowth constraint system 151 will comprise a sheet having a thickness inthe range of about 10 to about 100 micrometers. For example, in one suchembodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 comprises astainless steel sheet (e.g., SS316) having a thickness of about 30 μm.By way of further example, in another such embodiment, the primarygrowth constraint system 151 comprises an aluminum sheet (e.g., 7075-T6)having a thickness of about 40 μm. By way of further example, in anothersuch embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 comprises azirconia sheet (e.g., Coorstek YZTP) having a thickness of about 30 μm.By way of further example, in another such embodiment, the primarygrowth constraint system 151 comprises an E Glass UD/Epoxy 0 deg sheethaving a thickness of about 75 μm. By way of further example, in anothersuch embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 comprises 12μm carbon fibers at >50% packing density.

Without being bound to any particular theory, methods for gluing, asdescribed herein, may include gluing, soldering, bonding, sintering,press contacting, brazing, thermal spraying joining, clamping, orcombinations thereof. Gluing may include joining the materials withconductive materials such as conducting epoxies, conducting elastomers,mixtures of insulating organic glue filled with conducting metals, suchas nickel filled epoxy, carbon filled epoxy etc. Conductive pastes maybe used to join the materials together and the joining strength could betailored by temperature (sintering), light (UV curing, cross-linking),chemical curing (catalyst based cross linking). Bonding processes mayinclude wire bonding, ribbon bonding, ultrasonic bonding. Weldingprocesses may include ultrasonic welding, resistance welding, laser beamwelding, electron beam welding, induction welding, and cold welding.Joining of these materials can also be performed by using a coatingprocess such as a thermal spray coating such as plasma spraying, flamespraying, arc spraying, to join materials together. For example, anickel or copper mesh can be joined onto a nickel bus using a thermalspray of nickel as a glue.

Members of the electrode 110 and counter-electrode 112 populationsinclude an electroactive material capable of absorbing and releasing acarrier ion such as lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium oraluminum ions. In some embodiments, members of the electrode structure110 population include an anodically active electroactive material(sometimes referred to as a negative electrode) and members of thecounter-electrode structure 112 population include a cathodically activeelectroactive material (sometimes referred to as a positive electrode).In other embodiments, members of the electrode structure 110 populationinclude a cathodically active electroactive material and members of thecounter-electrode structure 112 population comprise an anodically activeelectroactive material. In each of the embodiments and examples recitedin this paragraph, negative electrode active material may be aparticulate agglomerate electrode or a monolithic electrode.

Exemplary anodically active electroactive materials include carbonmaterials such as graphite and soft or hard carbons, or any of a rangeof metals, semi-metals, alloys, oxides and compounds capable of formingan alloy with lithium. Specific examples of the metals or semi-metalscapable of constituting the anode material include tin, lead, magnesium,aluminum, boron, gallium, silicon, indium, zirconium, germanium,bismuth, cadmium, antimony, silver, zinc, arsenic, hafnium, yttrium, andpalladium. In one exemplary embodiment, the anodically active materialcomprises aluminum, tin, or silicon, or an oxide thereof, a nitridethereof, a fluoride thereof, or other alloy thereof. In anotherexemplary embodiment, the anodically active material comprises siliconor an alloy thereof.

Exemplary cathodically active materials include any of a wide range ofcathode active materials. For example, for a lithium-ion battery, thecathodically active material may comprise a cathode material selectedfrom transition metal oxides, transition metal sulfides, transitionmetal nitrides, lithium-transition metal oxides, lithium-transitionmetal sulfides, and lithium-transition metal nitrides may be selectivelyused. The transition metal elements of these transition metal oxides,transition metal sulfides, and transition metal nitrides can includemetal elements having a d-shell or f-shell. Specific examples of suchmetal element are Sc, Y, lanthanoids, actinoids, Ti, Zr, Hf, V, Nb, Ta,Cr, Mo, W, Mn, Tc, Re, Fe, Ru, Os, Co, Rh, Ir, Ni, Pb, Pt, Cu, Ag, andAu. Additional cathode active materials include LiCoO₂,LiNi_(0.5)Mn_(1.5)O₄, Li(Ni_(x)Co_(y)Al₂)O₂, LiFePO₄, Li₂MnO₄, V₂O₅,molybdenum oxysulfides, phosphates, silicates, vanadates andcombinations thereof.

In one embodiment, the anodically active material is microstructured toprovide a significant void volume fraction to accommodate volumeexpansion and contraction as lithium ions (or other carrier ions) areincorporated into or leave the negative electrode active material duringcharging and discharging processes. In general, the void volume fractionof the negative electrode active material is at least 0.1. Typically,however, the void volume fraction of the negative electrode activematerial is not greater than 0.8. For example, in one embodiment, thevoid volume fraction of the negative electrode active material is about0.15 to about 0.75. By way of the further example, in one embodiment,the void volume fraction of the negative electrode active material isabout 0.2 to about 0.7. By way of the further example, in oneembodiment, the void volume fraction of the negative electrode activematerial is about 0.25 to about 0.6.

Depending upon the composition of the microstructured negative electrodeactive material and the method of its formation, the microstructurednegative electrode active material may comprise macroporous,microporous, or mesoporous material layers or a combination thereof,such as a combination of microporous and mesoporous, or a combination ofmesoporous and macroporous. Microporous material is typicallycharacterized by a pore dimension of less than 10 nm, a wall dimensionof less than 10 nm, a pore depth of 1-50 micrometers, and a poremorphology that is generally characterized by a “spongy” and irregularappearance, walls that are not smooth, and branched pores. Mesoporousmaterial is typically characterized by a pore dimension of 10-50 nm, awall dimension of 10-50 nm, a pore depth of 1-100 micrometers, and apore morphology that is generally characterized by branched pores thatare somewhat well defined or dendritic pores. Macroporous material istypically characterized by a pore dimension of greater than 50 nm, awall dimension of greater than 50 nm, a pore depth of 1-500 micrometers,and a pore morphology that may be varied, straight, branched, ordendritic, and smooth or rough-walled. Additionally, the void volume maycomprise open or closed voids, or a combination thereof. In oneembodiment, the void volume comprises open voids, that is, the negativeelectrode active material contains voids having openings at the lateralsurface of the negative electrode active material through which lithiumions (or other carrier ions) can enter or leave the negative electrodeactive material; for example, lithium ions may enter the negativeelectrode active material through the void openings after leaving thepositive electrode active material. In another embodiment, the voidvolume comprises closed voids, that is, the negative electrode activematerial contains voids that are enclosed by negative electrode activematerial. In general, open voids can provide greater interfacial surfacearea for the carrier ions whereas closed voids tend to be lesssusceptible to solid electrolyte interface while each provides room forexpansion of the negative electrode active material upon the entry ofcarrier ions. In certain embodiments, therefore, it is preferred thatthe negative electrode active material comprise a combination of openand closed voids.

In one embodiment, negative electrode active material comprises porousaluminum, tin or silicon or an alloy thereof. Porous silicon layers maybe formed, for example, by anodization, by etching (e.g., by depositingprecious metals such as gold, platinum, silver or gold/palladium on thesurface of single crystal silicon and etching the surface with a mixtureof hydrofluoric acid and hydrogen peroxide), or by other methods knownin the art such as patterned chemical etching. Additionally, the porousnegative electrode active material will generally have a porosityfraction of at least about 0.1, but less than 0.8 and have a thicknessof about 1 to about 100 micrometers. For example, in one embodiment,negative electrode active material comprises porous silicon, has athickness of about 5 to about 100 micrometers, and has a porosityfraction of about 0.15 to about 0.75. By way of further example, in oneembodiment, negative electrode active material comprises porous silicon,has a thickness of about 10 to about 80 micrometers, and has a porosityfraction of about 0.15 to about 0.7. By way of further example, in onesuch embodiment, negative electrode active material comprises poroussilicon, has a thickness of about 20 to about 50 micrometers, and has aporosity fraction of about 0.25 to about 0.6. By way of further example,in one embodiment, negative electrode active material comprises a poroussilicon alloy (such as nickel silicide), has a thickness of about 5 toabout 100 micrometers, and has a porosity fraction of about 0.15 toabout 0.75.

In another embodiment, negative electrode active material comprisesfibers of aluminum, tin or silicon, or an alloy thereof. Individualfibers may have a diameter (thickness dimension) of about 5 nm to about10,000 nm and a length generally corresponding to the thickness of thenegative electrode active material. Fibers (nanowires) of silicon may beformed, for example, by chemical vapor deposition or other techniquesknown in the art such as vapor liquid solid (VLS) growth and solidliquid solid (SLS) growth. Additionally, the negative electrode activematerial will generally have a porosity fraction of at least about 0.1,but less than 0.8 and have a thickness of about 1 to about 200micrometers. For example, in one embodiment, negative electrode activematerial comprises silicon nanowires, has a thickness of about 5 toabout 100 micrometers, and has a porosity fraction of about 0.15 toabout 0.75. By way of further example, in one embodiment, negativeelectrode active material comprises silicon nanowires, has a thicknessof about 10 to about 80 micrometers, and has a porosity fraction ofabout 0.15 to about 0.7. By way of further example, in one suchembodiment, negative electrode active material comprises siliconnanowires, has a thickness of about 20 to about 50 micrometers, and hasa porosity fraction of about 0.25 to about 0.6. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment, negative electrode active material comprisesnanowires of a silicon alloy (such as nickel silicide), has a thicknessof about 5 to about 100 micrometers, and has a porosity fraction ofabout 0.15 to about 0.75.

In one embodiment, each member of the electrode 110 population has abottom, a top, and a longitudinal axis (A_(E)) extending from the bottomto the top thereof and in a direction generally perpendicular to thedirection in which the alternating sequence of electrode structures 110and counter-electrode structures 112 progresses. Additionally, eachmember of the electrode 110 population has a length (L_(E)) measuredalong the longitudinal axis (A_(E)) of the electrode, a width (W_(E))measured in the direction in which the alternating sequence of electrodestructures and counter-electrode structures progresses, and a height(H_(E)) measured in a direction that is perpendicular to each of thedirections of measurement of the length (L_(E)) and the width (W_(E)).Each member of the electrode population also has a perimeter (P_(E))that corresponds to the sum of the length(s) of the side(s) of aprojection of the electrode in a plane that is normal to itslongitudinal axis.

The length (L_(E)) of the members of the electrode population will varydepending upon the energy storage device and its intended use. Ingeneral, however, the members of the electrode population will typicallyhave a length (L_(E)) in the range of about 5 mm to about 500 mm. Forexample, in one such embodiment, the members of the electrode populationhave a length (L_(E)) of about 10 mm to about 250 mm. By way of furtherexample, in one such embodiment the members of the electrode populationhave a length (L_(E)) of about 25 mm to about 100 mm.

The width (W_(E)) of the members of the electrode population will alsovary depending upon the energy storage device and its intended use. Ingeneral, however, each member of the electrode population will typicallyhave a width (W_(E)) within the range of about 0.01 mm to 2.5 mm. Forexample, in one embodiment, the width (W_(E)) of each member of theelectrode population will be in the range of about 0.025 mm to about 2mm. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the width (W_(E)) ofeach member of the electrode population will be in the range of about0.05 mm to about 1 mm.

The height (H_(E)) of the members of the electrode population will alsovary depending upon the energy storage device and its intended use. Ingeneral, however, members of the electrode population will typicallyhave a height (H_(E)) within the range of about 0.05 mm to about 10 mm.For example, in one embodiment, the height (H_(E)) of each member of theelectrode population will be in the range of about 0.05 mm to about 5mm. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the height (H_(E)) ofeach member of the electrode population will be in the range of about0.1 mm to about 1 mm. According to one embodiment, the members of theelectrode population include one or more first electrode members havinga first height, and one or more second electrode members having a secondheight that is other than the first. For example, in one embodiment, theone or more first electrode members may have a height selected to allowthe electrode members to contact a portion of the secondary constraintsystem in the vertical direction (Z axis). For example, the height ofthe one or more first electrode members may be sufficient such that thefirst electrode members extend between and contact both the first andsecond secondary growth constraints 158, 160 along the vertical axis,such as when at least one of the first electrode members or asubstructure thereof serves as a secondary connecting member 166.Furthermore, according to one embodiment, one or more second electrodemembers may have a height that is less than the one or more firstelectrode members, such that for example the one or more secondelectrode members do not fully extend to contact both of the first andsecond secondary growth constraints 158, 160. In yet another embodiment,the different heights for the one or more first electrode members andone or more second electrode members may be selected to accommodate apredetermined shape for the electrode assembly 106, such as an electrodeassembly shape having a different heights along one or more of thelongitudinal and/or transverse axis, and/or to provide predeterminedperformance characteristics for the secondary battery.

The perimeter (P_(E)) of the members of the electrode population willsimilarly vary depending upon the energy storage device and its intendeduse. In general, however, members of the electrode population willtypically have a perimeter (P_(E)) within the range of about 0.025 mm toabout 25 mm. For example, in one embodiment, the perimeter (P_(E)) ofeach member of the electrode population will be in the range of about0.1 mm to about 15 mm. By way of further example, in one embodiment, theperimeter (P_(E)) of each member of the electrode population will be inthe range of about 0.5 mm to about 10 mm.

In general, members of the electrode population have a length (L_(E))that is substantially greater than each of its width (W_(E)) and itsheight (H_(E)). For example, in one embodiment, the ratio of L_(E) toeach of W_(E) and H_(E) is at least 5:1, respectively (that is, theratio of L_(E) to W_(E) is at least 5:1, respectively and the ratio ofL_(E) to H_(E) is at least 5:1, respectively), for each member of theelectrode population. By way of further example, in one embodiment theratio of L_(E) to each of W_(E) and H_(E) is at least 10:1. By way offurther example, in one embodiment, the ratio of L_(E) to each of W_(E)and H_(E) is at least 15:1. By way of further example, in oneembodiment, the ratio of L_(E) to each of W_(E) and H_(E) is at least20:1, for each member of the electrode population.

Additionally, it is generally preferred that members of the electrodepopulation have a length (L_(E)) that is substantially greater than itsperimeter (P_(E)); for example, in one embodiment, the ratio of L_(E) toP_(E) is at least 1.25:1, respectively, for each member of the electrodepopulation. By way of further example, in one embodiment the ratio ofL_(E) to P_(E) is at least 2.5:1, respectively, for each member of theelectrode population. By way of further example, in one embodiment, theratio of L_(E) to P_(E) is at least 3.75:1, respectively, for eachmember of the electrode population.

In one embodiment, the ratio of the height (H_(E)) to the width (W_(E))of the members of the electrode population is at least 0.4:1,respectively. For example, in one embodiment, the ratio of H_(E) toW_(E) will be at least 2:1, respectively, for each member of theelectrode population. By way of further example, in one embodiment theratio of H_(E) to W_(E) will be at least 10:1, respectively. By way offurther example, in one embodiment the ratio of H_(E) to W_(E) will beat least 20:1, respectively. Typically, however, the ratio of H_(E) toW_(E) will generally be less than 1,000:1, respectively. For example, inone embodiment the ratio of H_(E) to W_(E) will be less than 500:1,respectively. By way of further example, in one embodiment the ratio ofH_(E) to W_(E) will be less than 100:1, respectively. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment the ratio of H_(E) to W_(E) will be less than10:1, respectively. By way of further example, in one embodiment theratio of H_(E) to W_(E) will be in the range of about 2:1 to about100:1, respectively, for each member of the electrode population.

Each member of the counter-electrode population has a bottom, a top, anda longitudinal axis (A_(CE)) extending from the bottom to the topthereof and in a direction generally perpendicular to the direction inwhich the alternating sequence of electrode structures andcounter-electrode structures progresses. Additionally, each member ofthe counter-electrode population has a length (L_(CE)) measured alongthe longitudinal axis (A_(CE)), a width (W_(CE)) measured in thedirection in which the alternating sequence of electrode structures andcounter-electrode structures progresses, and a height (H_(CE)) measuredin a direction that is perpendicular to each of the directions ofmeasurement of the length (L_(CE)) and the width (W_(CE)). Each memberof the counter-electrode population also has a perimeter (P_(CE)) thatcorresponds to the sum of the length(s) of the side(s) of a projectionof the counter-electrode in a plane that is normal to its longitudinalaxis.

The length (L_(CE)) of the members of the counter-electrode populationwill vary depending upon the energy storage device and its intended use.In general, however, each member of the counter-electrode populationwill typically have a length (L_(CE)) in the range of about 5 mm toabout 500 mm. For example, in one such embodiment, each member of thecounter-electrode population has a length (L_(CE)) of about 10 mm toabout 250 mm. By way of further example, in one such embodiment eachmember of the counter-electrode population has a length (L_(CE)) ofabout 25 mm to about 100 mm.

The width (W_(CE)) of the members of the counter-electrode populationwill also vary depending upon the energy storage device and its intendeduse. In general, however, members of the counter-electrode populationwill typically have a width (W_(CE)) within the range of about 0.01 mmto 2.5 mm. For example, in one embodiment, the width (W_(CE)) of eachmember of the counter-electrode population will be in the range of about0.025 mm to about 2 mm. By way of further example, in one embodiment,the width (W_(CE)) of each member of the counter-electrode populationwill be in the range of about 0.05 mm to about 1 mm.

The height (H_(CE)) of the members of the counter-electrode populationwill also vary depending upon the energy storage device and its intendeduse. In general, however, members of the counter-electrode populationwill typically have a height (H_(CE)) within the range of about 0.05 mmto about 10 mm. For example, in one embodiment, the height (H_(CE)) ofeach member of the counter-electrode population will be in the range ofabout 0.05 mm to about 5 mm. By way of further example, in oneembodiment, the height (H_(CE)) of each member of the counter-electrodepopulation will be in the range of about 0.1 mm to about 1 mm. Accordingto one embodiment, the members of the counter-electrode populationinclude one or more first counter-electrode members having a firstheight, and one or more second counter-electrode members having a secondheight that is other than the first. For example, in one embodiment, theone or more first counter-electrode members may have a height selectedto allow the counter-electrode members to contact a portion of thesecondary constraint system in the vertical direction (Z axis). Forexample, the height of the one or more first counter-electrode membersmay be sufficient such that the first counter-electrode members extendbetween and contact both the first and second secondary growthconstraints 158, 160 along the vertical axis, such as when at least oneof the first counter-electrode members or a substructure thereof servesas a secondary connecting member 166. Furthermore, according to oneembodiment, one or more second counter-electrode members may have aheight that is less than the one or more first counter-electrodemembers, such that for example the one or more second counter-electrodemembers do not fully extend to contact both of the first and secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160. In yet another embodiment, thedifferent heights for the one or more first counter-electrode membersand one or more second counter-electrode members may be selected toaccommodate a predetermined shape for the electrode assembly 106, suchas an electrode assembly shape having a different heights along one ormore of the longitudinal and/or transverse axis, and/or to providepredetermined performance characteristics for the secondary battery.

The perimeter (P_(CE)) of the members of the counter-electrodepopulation will also vary depending upon the energy storage device andits intended use. In general, however, members of the counter-electrodepopulation will typically have a perimeter (P_(CE)) within the range ofabout 0.025 mm to about 25 mm. For example, in one embodiment, theperimeter (P_(CE)) of each member of the counter-electrode populationwill be in the range of about 0.1 mm to about 15 mm. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment, the perimeter (P_(CE)) of each member of thecounter-electrode population will be in the range of about 0.5 mm toabout 10 mm.

In general, each member of the counter-electrode population has a length(L_(CE)) that is substantially greater than width (W_(CE)) andsubstantially greater than its height (H_(CE)). For example, in oneembodiment, the ratio of L_(CE) to each of W_(CE) and H_(CE) is at least5:1, respectively (that is, the ratio of L_(CE) to W_(CE) is at least5:1, respectively and the ratio of L_(CE) to H_(CE) is at least 5:1,respectively), for each member of the counter-electrode population. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the ratio of L_(CE) to each ofW_(CE) and H_(CE) is at least 10:1 for each member of thecounter-electrode population. By way of further example, in oneembodiment, the ratio of L_(CE) to each of W_(CE) and H_(CE) is at least15:1 for each member of the counter-electrode population. By way offurther example, in one embodiment, the ratio of L_(CE) to each ofW_(CE) and H_(CE) is at least 20:1 for each member of thecounter-electrode population.

Additionally, it is generally preferred that members of thecounter-electrode population have a length (L_(CE)) that issubstantially greater than its perimeter (P_(CE)); for example, in oneembodiment, the ratio of L_(CE) to P_(CE) is at least 1.25:1,respectively, for each member of the counter-electrode population. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the ratio of L_(CE) to P_(CE)is at least 2.5:1, respectively, for each member of thecounter-electrode population. By way of further example, in oneembodiment, the ratio of L_(CE) to P_(CE) is at least 3.75:1,respectively, for each member of the counter-electrode population.

In one embodiment, the ratio of the height (H_(CE)) to the width(W_(CE)) of the members of the counter-electrode population is at least0.4:1, respectively. For example, in one embodiment, the ratio of H_(CE)to W_(CE) will be at least 2:1, respectively, for each member of thecounter-electrode population. By way of further example, in oneembodiment the ratio of H_(CE) to W_(CE) will be at least 10:1,respectively, for each member of the counter-electrode population. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the ratio of H_(CE) to W_(CE)will be at least 20:1, respectively, for each member of thecounter-electrode population. Typically, however, the ratio of W_(CE) toW_(CE) will generally be less than 1,000:1, respectively, for eachmember of the electrode population. For example, in one embodiment theratio of H_(CE) to W_(CE) will be less than 500:1, respectively, foreach member of the counter-electrode population. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment the ratio of H_(CE) to W_(CE) will be lessthan 100:1, respectively. By way of further example, in one embodimentthe ratio of H_(CE) to W_(CE) will be less than 10:1, respectively. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the ratio of H_(CE) to W_(CE)will be in the range of about 2:1 to about 100:1, respectively, for eachmember of the counter-electrode population.

In one embodiment the negative electrode current conductor layer 136comprised by each member of the negative electrode population has alength L_(NC) that is at least 50% of the length L_(NE) of the membercomprising such negative electrode current collector. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment the negative electrode current conductorlayer 136 comprised by each member of the negative electrode populationhas a length L_(NC) that is at least 60% of the length L_(NE) of themember comprising such negative electrode current collector. By way offurther example, in one embodiment the negative electrode currentconductor layer 136 comprised by each member of the negative electrodepopulation has a length L_(NC) that is at least 70% of the length L_(NE)of the member comprising such negative electrode current collector. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the negative electrode currentconductor layer 136 comprised by each member of the negative electrodepopulation has a length L_(NC) that is at least 80% of the length L_(NE)of the member comprising such negative electrode current collector. Byway of further example, in one embodiment the negative electrode currentconductor 136 comprised by each member of the negative electrodepopulation has a length L_(NC) that is at least 90% of the length L_(NE)of the member comprising such negative electrode current collector.

In one embodiment, the positive electrode current conductor 140comprised by each member of the positive electrode population has alength L_(PC) that is at least 50% of the length L_(PE) of the membercomprising such positive electrode current collector. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment the positive electrode current conductor 140comprised by each member of the positive electrode population has alength L_(PC) that is at least 60% of the length L_(PE) of the membercomprising such positive electrode current collector. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment the positive electrode current conductor 140comprised by each member of the positive electrode population has alength L_(PC) that is at least 70% of the length L_(PE) of the membercomprising such positive electrode current collector. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment the positive electrode current conductor 140comprised by each member of the positive electrode population has alength L_(PC) that is at least 80% of the length L_(PE) of the membercomprising such positive electrode current collector. By way of furtherexample, in one embodiment the positive electrode current conductor 140comprised by each member of the positive electrode population has alength L_(PC) that is at least 90% of the length L_(PE) of the membercomprising such positive electrode current collector.

In one embodiment negative electrode current collector layer 136comprises an ionically permeable conductor material that is bothionically and electrically conductive. Stated differently, the negativeelectrode current collector layer has a thickness, an electricalconductivity, and an ionic conductivity for carrier ions thatfacilitates the movement of carrier ions between an immediately adjacentactive electrode material layer one side of the ionically permeableconductor layer and an immediately adjacent separator layer on the otherside of the negative electrode current collector layer in anelectrochemical stack. On a relative basis, the negative electrodecurrent collector layer has an electrical conductance that is greaterthan its ionic conductance when there is an applied current to storeenergy in the device or an applied load to discharge the device. Forexample, the ratio of the electrical conductance to the ionicconductance (for carrier ions) of the negative electrode currentcollector layer will typically be at least 1,000:1, respectively, whenthere is an applied current to store energy in the device or an appliedload to discharge the device. By way of further example, in one suchembodiment, the ratio of the electrical conductance to the ionicconductance (for carrier ions) of the negative electrode currentcollector layer is at least 5,000:1, respectively, when there is anapplied current to store energy in the device or an applied load todischarge the device. By way of further example, in one such embodiment,the ratio of the electrical conductance to the ionic conductance (forcarrier ions) of the negative electrode current collector layer is atleast 10,000:1, respectively, when there is an applied current to storeenergy in the device or an applied load to discharge the device. By wayof further example, in one such embodiment, the ratio of the electricalconductance to the ionic conductance (for carrier ions) of the negativeelectrode current collector layer is at least 50,000:1, respectively,when there is an applied current to store energy in the device or anapplied load to discharge the device. By way of further example, in onesuch embodiment, the ratio of the electrical conductance to the ionicconductance (for carrier ions) of the negative electrode currentcollector layer is at least 100,000:1, respectively, when there is anapplied current to store energy in the device or an applied load todischarge the device.

In those embodiments in which negative electrode current collector 136comprises an ionically permeable conductor material that is bothionically and electrically conductive, negative electrode currentcollector 136 may have an ionic conductance that is comparable to theionic conductance of an adjacent separator layer when a current isapplied to store energy in the device or a load is applied to dischargethe device, such as when a secondary battery is charging or discharging.For example, in one embodiment negative electrode current collector 136has an ionic conductance (for carrier ions) that is at least 50% of theionic conductance of the separator layer (i.e., a ratio of 0.5:1,respectively) when there is an applied current to store energy in thedevice or an applied load to discharge the device. By way of furtherexample, in some embodiments the ratio of the ionic conductance (forcarrier ions) of negative electrode current collector 136 to the ionicconductance (for carrier ions) of the separator layer is at least 1:1when there is an applied current to store energy in the device or anapplied load to discharge the device. By way of further example, in someembodiments the ratio of the ionic conductance (for carrier ions) ofnegative electrode current collector 136 to the ionic conductance (forcarrier ions) of the separator layer is at least 1.25:1 when there is anapplied current to store energy in the device or an applied load todischarge the device. By way of further example, in some embodiments theratio of the ionic conductance (for carrier ions) of negative electrodecurrent collector 136 to the ionic conductance (for carrier ions) of theseparator layer is at least 1.5:1 when there is an applied current tostore energy in the device or an applied load to discharge the device.By way of further example, in some embodiments the ratio of the ionicconductance (for carrier ions) of negative electrode current collector136 to the ionic conductance (for carrier ions) of the separator layeris at least 2:1 when there is an applied current to store energy in thedevice or an applied load to discharge the device.

In one embodiment, negative electrode current collector 136 also has anelectrical conductance that is substantially greater than the electricalconductance of the negative electrode active material layer. Forexample, in one embodiment the ratio of the electrical conductance ofnegative electrode current collector 136 to the electrical conductanceof the negative electrode active material layer is at least 100:1 whenthere is an applied current to store energy in the device or an appliedload to discharge the device. By way of further example, in someembodiments the ratio of the electrical conductance of negativeelectrode current collector 136 to the electrical conductance of thenegative electrode active material layer is at least 500:1 when there isan applied current to store energy in the device or an applied load todischarge the device. By way of further example, in some embodiments theratio of the electrical conductance of negative electrode currentcollector 136 to the electrical conductance of the negative electrodeactive material layer is at least 1000:1 when there is an appliedcurrent to store energy in the device or an applied load to dischargethe device. By way of further example, in some embodiments the ratio ofthe electrical conductance of negative electrode current collector 136to the electrical conductance of the negative electrode active materiallayer is at least 5000:1 when there is an applied current to storeenergy in the device or an applied load to discharge the device. By wayof further example, in some embodiments the ratio of the electricalconductance of negative electrode current collector 136 to theelectrical conductance of the negative electrode active material layeris at least 10,000:1 when there is an applied current to store energy inthe device or an applied load to discharge the device.

The thickness of negative electrode current collector 136 (i.e., theshortest distance between the separator and the negative electrodeactive material layer between which negative electrode current collectorlayer 136 is sandwiched) in this embodiment will depend upon thecomposition of the layer and the performance specifications for theelectrochemical stack. In general, when a negative electrode currentcollector layer is an ionically permeable conductor layer, it will havea thickness of at least about 300 Angstroms. For example, in someembodiments it may have a thickness in the range of about 300-800Angstroms. More typically, however, it will have a thickness greaterthan about 0.1 micrometers. In general, an ionically permeable conductorlayer will have a thickness not greater than about 100 micrometers.Thus, for example, in one embodiment, negative electrode currentcollector 136 will have a thickness in the range of about 0.1 to about10 micrometers. By way of further example, in some embodiments, negativeelectrode current collector 136 will have a thickness in the range ofabout 0.1 to about 5 micrometers. By way of further example, in someembodiments, negative electrode current collector 136 will have athickness in the range of about 0.5 to about 3 micrometers. In general,it is preferred that the thickness of negative electrode currentcollector 136 be approximately uniform. For example, in one embodimentit is preferred that negative electrode current collector 136 have athickness non-uniformity of less than about 25% wherein thicknessnon-uniformity is defined as the quantity of the maximum thickness ofthe layer minus the minimum thickness of the layer, divided by theaverage layer thickness. In certain embodiments, the thickness variationis even less. For example, in some embodiments negative electrodecurrent collector 136 has a thickness non-uniformity of less than about20%. By way of further example, in some embodiments negative electrodecurrent collector 136 has a thickness non-uniformity of less than about15%. In some embodiments the ionically permeable conductor layer has athickness non-uniformity of less than about 10%.

In one preferred embodiment, negative electrode current collector 136 isan ionically permeable conductor layer comprising an electricallyconductive component and an ion conductive component that contribute tothe ionic permeability and electrical conductivity. Typically, theelectrically conductive component will comprise a continuouselectrically conductive material (such as a continuous metal or metalalloy) in the form of a mesh or patterned surface, a film, or compositematerial comprising the continuous electrically conductive material(such as a continuous metal or metal alloy). Additionally, the ionconductive component will typically comprise pores, e.g., interstices ofa mesh, spaces between a patterned metal or metal alloy containingmaterial layer, pores in a metal film, or a solid ion conductor havingsufficient diffusivity for carrier ions. In certain embodiments, theionically permeable conductor layer comprises a deposited porousmaterial, an ion-transporting material, an ion-reactive material, acomposite material, or a physically porous material. If porous, forexample, the ionically permeable conductor layer may have a voidfraction of at least about 0.25. In general, however, the void fractionwill typically not exceed about 0.95. More typically, when the ionicallypermeable conductor layer is porous the void fraction may be in therange of about 0.25 to about 0.85. In some embodiments, for example,when the ionically permeable conductor layer is porous the void fractionmay be in the range of about 0.35 to about 0.65.

Being positioned between the negative electrode active material layerand the separator, negative electrode current collector 136 mayfacilitate more uniform carrier ion transport by distributing currentfrom the negative electrode current collector across the surface of thenegative electrode active material layer. This, in turn, may facilitatemore uniform insertion and extraction of carrier ions and thereby reducestress in the negative electrode active material during cycling; sincenegative electrode current collector 136 distributes current to thesurface of the negative electrode active material layer facing theseparator, the reactivity of the negative electrode active materiallayer for carrier ions will be the greatest where the carrier ionconcentration is the greatest. In yet another embodiment, the positionsof the negative electrode current collector 136 and the negativeelectrode active material layer may be reversed.

According to one embodiment, each member of the positive electrodes hasa positive electrode current collector 140 that may be disposed, forexample, between the positive electrode backbone and the positiveelectrode active material layer. Furthermore, one or more of thenegative electrode current collector 136 and positive electrode currentcollector 140 may comprise a metal such as aluminum, carbon, chromium,gold, nickel, NiP, palladium, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, an alloy ofsilicon and nickel, titanium, or a combination thereof (see “Currentcollectors for positive electrodes of lithium-based batteries” by A. H.Whitehead and M. Schreiber, Journal of the Electrochemical Society,152(11) A2105-A2113 (2005)). By way of further example, in oneembodiment, positive electrode current collector 140 comprises gold oran alloy thereof such as gold silicide. By way of further example, inone embodiment, positive electrode current collector 140 comprisesnickel or an alloy thereof such as nickel silicide.

In an alternative embodiment, the positions of the positive electrodecurrent collector layer and the positive electrode active material layermay be reversed, for example such that that the positive electrodecurrent collector layer is positioned between the separator layer andthe positive electrode active material layer. In such embodiments, thepositive electrode current collector 140 for the immediately adjacentpositive electrode active material layer comprises an ionicallypermeable conductor having a composition and construction as describedin connection with the negative electrode current collector layer; thatis, the positive electrode current collector layer comprises a layer ofan ionically permeable conductor material that is both ionically andelectrically conductive. In this embodiment, the positive electrodecurrent collector layer has a thickness, an electrical conductivity, andan ionic conductivity for carrier ions that facilitates the movement ofcarrier ions between an immediately adjacent positive electrode activematerial layer on one side of the positive electrode current collectorlayer and an immediately adjacent separator layer on the other side ofthe positive electrode current collector layer in an electrochemicalstack. On a relative basis in this embodiment, the positive electrodecurrent collector layer has an electrical conductance that is greaterthan its ionic conductance when there is an applied current to storeenergy in the device or an applied load to discharge the device. Forexample, the ratio of the electrical conductance to the ionicconductance (for carrier ions) of the positive electrode currentcollector layer will typically be at least 1,000:1, respectively, whenthere is an applied current to store energy in the device or an appliedload to discharge the device. By way of further example, in one suchembodiment, the ratio of the electrical conductance to the ionicconductance (for carrier ions) of the positive electrode currentcollector layer is at least 5,000:1, respectively, when there is anapplied current to store energy in the device or an applied load todischarge the device. By way of further example, in one such embodiment,the ratio of the electrical conductance to the ionic conductance (forcarrier ions) of the positive electrode current collector layer is atleast 10,000:1, respectively, when there is an applied current to storeenergy in the device or an applied load to discharge the device. By wayof further example, in one such embodiment, the ratio of the electricalconductance to the ionic conductance (for carrier ions) of the positiveelectrode current collector layer is at least 50,000:1, respectively,when there is an applied current to store energy in the device or anapplied load to discharge the device. By way of further example, in onesuch embodiment, the ratio of the electrical conductance to the ionicconductance (for carrier ions) of the positive electrode currentcollector layer is at least 100,000:1, respectively, when there is anapplied current to store energy in the device or an applied load todischarge the device.

Electrically insulating separator layers 130 may surround andelectrically isolate each member of the electrode structure 110population from each member of the counter-electrode structure 112population. Electrically insulating separator layers 130 will typicallyinclude a microporous separator material that can be permeated with anon-aqueous electrolyte; for example, in one embodiment, the microporousseparator material includes pores having a diameter of at least 50 Å,more typically in the range of about 2,500 Å, and a porosity in therange of about 25% to about 75%, more typically in the range of about35-55%. Additionally, the microporous separator material may bepermeated with a non-aqueous electrolyte to permit conduction of carrierions between adjacent members of the electrode and counter-electrodepopulations. In certain embodiments, for example, and ignoring theporosity of the microporous separator material, at least 70 vol % ofelectrically insulating separator material between a member of theelectrode structure 110 population and the nearest member(s) of thecounter-electrode structure 112 population (i.e., an “adjacent pair”)for ion exchange during a charging or discharging cycle is a microporousseparator material; stated differently, microporous separator materialconstitutes at least 70 vol % of the electrically insulating materialbetween a member of the electrode structure 110 population and thenearest member of the counter-electrode 112 structure population. By wayof further example, in one embodiment, and ignoring the porosity of themicroporous separator material, microporous separator materialconstitutes at least 75 vol % of the electrically insulating separatormaterial layer between adjacent pairs of members of the electrodestructure 110 population and members of the counter-electrode structure112 population, respectively. By way of further example, in oneembodiment, and ignoring the porosity of the microporous separatormaterial, the microporous separator material constitutes at least 80 vol% of the electrically insulating separator material layer betweenadjacent pairs of members of the electrode structure 110 population andmembers of the counter-electrode structure 112 population, respectively.By way of further example, in one embodiment, and ignoring the porosityof the microporous separator material, the microporous separatormaterial constitutes at least 85 vol % of the electrically insulatingseparator material layer between adjacent pairs of members of theelectrode structure 110 population and members of the counter-electrodestructure 112 population, respectively. By way of further example, inone embodiment, and ignoring the porosity of the microporous separatormaterial, the microporous separator material constitutes at least 90 vol% of the electrically insulating separator material layer betweenadjacent pairs of members of the electrode structure 110 population andmember of the counter-electrode structure 112 population, respectively.By way of further example, in one embodiment, and ignoring the porosityof the microporous separator material, the microporous separatormaterial constitutes at least 95 vol % of the electrically insulatingseparator material layer between adjacent pairs of members of theelectrode structure 110 population and members of the counter-electrodestructure 112 population, respectively. By way of further example, inone embodiment, and ignoring the porosity of the microporous separatormaterial, the microporous separator material constitutes at least 99 vol% of the electrically insulating separator material layer betweenadjacent pairs of members of the electrode structure 110 population andmembers of the counter-electrode structure 112 population, respectively.

In one embodiment, the microporous separator material comprises aparticulate material and a binder, and has a porosity (void fraction) ofat least about 20 vol. % The pores of the microporous separator materialwill have a diameter of at least 50 Å and will typically fall within therange of about 250 to 2,500 Å. The microporous separator material willtypically have a porosity of less than about 75%. In one embodiment, themicroporous separator material has a porosity (void fraction) of atleast about 25 vol %. In one embodiment, the microporous separatormaterial will have a porosity of about 35-55%.

The binder for the microporous separator material may be selected from awide range of inorganic or polymeric materials. For example, in oneembodiment, the binder is an organic material selected from the groupconsisting of silicates, phosphates, aluminates, aluminosilicates, andhydroxides such as magnesium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, etc. Forexample, in one embodiment, the binder is a fluoropolymer derived frommonomers containing vinylidene fluoride, hexafluoropropylene,tetrafluoropropene, and the like. In another embodiment, the binder is apolyolefin such as polyethylene, polypropylene, or polybutene, havingany of a range of varying molecular weights and densities. In anotherembodiment, the binder is selected from the group consisting ofethylene-diene-propene terpolymer, polystyrene, polymethyl methacrylate,polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl butyral, polyacetal,and polyethyleneglycol diacrylate. In another embodiment, the binder isselected from the group consisting of methyl cellulose, carboxymethylcellulose, styrene rubber, butadiene rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber,isoprene rubber, polyacrylamide, polyvinyl ether, polyacrylic acid,polymethacrylic acid, and polyethylene oxide. In another embodiment, thebinder is selected from the group consisting of acrylates, styrenes,epoxies, and silicones. In another embodiment, the binder is a copolymeror blend of two or more of the aforementioned polymers.

The particulate material comprised by the microporous separator materialmay also be selected from a wide range of materials. In general, suchmaterials have a relatively low electronic and ionic conductivity atoperating temperatures and do not corrode under the operating voltagesof the battery electrode or current collector contacting the microporousseparator material. For example, in one embodiment, the particulatematerial has a conductivity for carrier ions (e.g., lithium) of lessthan 1×10⁻⁴ S/cm. By way of further example, in one embodiment, theparticulate material has a conductivity for carrier ions of less than1×10⁻⁵ S/cm. By way of further example, in one embodiment, theparticulate material has a conductivity for carrier ions of less than1×10⁻⁶ S/cm. Exemplary particulate materials include particulatepolyethylene, polypropylene, a TiO₂-polymer composite, silica aerogel,fumed silica, silica gel, silica hydrogel, silica xerogel, silica sol,colloidal silica, alumina, titania, magnesia, kaolin, talc, diatomaceousearth, calcium silicate, aluminum silicate, calcium carbonate, magnesiumcarbonate, or a combination thereof. For example, in one embodiment, theparticulate material comprises a particulate oxide or nitride such asTiO₂, SiO₂, Al₂O₃, GeO₂, B₂O₃, Bi₂O₃, BaO, ZnO, ZrO₂, BN, Si₃N₄, Ge₃N₄.See, for example, P. Arora and J. Zhang, “Battery Separators” ChemicalReviews 2004, 104, 4419-4462). In one embodiment, the particulatematerial will have an average particle size of about 20 nm to 2micrometers, more typically 200 nm to 1.5 micrometers. In oneembodiment, the particulate material will have an average particle sizeof about 500 nm to 1 micrometer.

In an alternative embodiment, the particulate material comprised by themicroporous separator material may be bound by techniques such assintering, binding, curing, etc. while maintaining the void fractiondesired for electrolyte ingress to provide the ionic conductivity forthe functioning of the battery.

Microporous separator materials may be deposited, for example, byelectrophoretic deposition of a particulate separator material in whichparticles are coalesced by surface energy such as electrostaticattraction or van der Waals forces, slurry deposition (including spin orspray coating) of a particulate separator material, screen printing, dipcoating, and electrostatic spray deposition. Binders may be included inthe deposition process; for example, the particulate material may beslurry deposited with a dissolved binder that precipitates upon solventevaporation, electrophoretically deposited in the presence of adissolved binder material, or co-electrophoretically deposited with abinder and insulating particles etc. Alternatively, or additionally,binders may be added after the particles are deposited into or onto theelectrode structure; for example, the particulate material may bedispersed in an organic binder solution and dip coated or spray-coated,followed by drying, melting, or cross-linking the binder material toprovide adhesion strength.

In an assembled energy storage device, the microporous separatormaterial is permeated with a non-aqueous electrolyte suitable for use asa secondary battery electrolyte. Typically, the non-aqueous electrolytecomprises a lithium salt dissolved in an organic solvent. Exemplarylithium salts include inorganic lithium salts such as LiClO₄, LiBF₄,LiPF₆, LiAsF₆, LiCl, and LiBr; and organic lithium salts such asLiB(C₆H₆)₄, LiN(SO₂CF₃)₂, LiN(SO₂CF₃)₃, LiNSO₂CF₃, LiNSO₂CF₅,LiNSO₂C₄F₉, LiNSO₂C₅F₁₁, LiNSO₂C₆F₁₃, and LiNSO₂C₇F₁₅. Exemplary organicsolvents to dissolve the lithium salt include cyclic esters, chainesters, cyclic ethers, and chain ethers. Specific examples of the cyclicesters include propylene carbonate, butylene carbonate, γ-butyrolactone,vinylene carbonate, 2-methyl-γ-butyrolactone, acetyl-γ-butyrolactone,and γ-valerolactone. Specific examples of the chain esters includedimethyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, dibutyl carbonate, dipropylcarbonate, methyl ethyl carbonate, methyl butyl carbonate, methyl propylcarbonate, ethyl butyl carbonate, ethyl propyl carbonate, butyl propylcarbonate, alkyl propionates, dialkyl malonates, and alkyl acetates.Specific examples of the cyclic ethers include tetrahydrofuran,alkyltetrahydrofurans, dialkyltetrahydrofurans, alkoxytetrahydrofurans,dialkoxytetrahydrofurans, 1,3-dioxolane, alkyl-1,3-dioxolanes, and1,4-dioxolane. Specific examples of the chain ethers include1,2-dimethoxyethane, 1,2-diethoxythane, diethyl ether, ethylene glycoldialkyl ethers, diethylene glycol dialkyl ethers, triethylene glycoldialkyl ethers, and tetraethylene glycol dialkyl ethers.

Furthermore, according to one embodiment, components of the secondarybattery 102 including the microporous separator 130 and other electrode110 and/or counter-electrode 112 structures comprise a configuration andcomposition that allow the components to function, even in a case whereexpansion of electrode active material 132 occurs during charge anddischarge of the secondary battery 102. That is, the components may bestructured such that failure of the components due to expansion of theelectrode active material 132 during charge/discharge thereof is withinacceptable limits.

Electrode Constraint Parameters

According to one embodiment, the design of the set of electrodeconstraints 108 depends on parameters including: (i) the force exertedon components of the set of electrode constraints 108 due to theexpansion of the electrode active material layers 132; and (ii) thestrength of the set of electrode constraints 108 that is required tocounteract force exerted by the expansion of the electrode activematerial layers 132. For example, according to one embodiment, theforces exerted on the system by the expansion of the electrode activematerial are dependent on the cross-sectional electrode area along aparticular direction. For example, the force exerted in the longitudinaldirection will be proportional to the length of the electrode (L_(E))multiplied by the height of the electrode (H_(E)); in the verticaldirection, the force would be proportional to the length of theelectrode (L_(E)) multiplied by the width of the electrode (W_(E)), andthe force in the transverse direction would be proportional to the widthof the electrode (W_(E)) multiplied by the height of the electrode(H_(E)).

The design of the primary growth constraints 154, 156 may be dependenton a number of variables. The primary growth constraints 154, 156restrain macroscopic growth of the electrode assembly 106 that is due toexpansion of the electrode active material layers 132 in thelongitudinal direction. In the embodiment as shown in FIG. 8A, theprimary growth constraints 154, 156 act in concert with the at least oneprimary connecting member 158 (e.g., first and second primary connectingmembers 158 and 160), to restrain growth of the electrode structures 110having the electrode active material layers 132. In restraining thegrowth, the at least one connecting member 158 places the primary growthconstraints 154, 156 in tension with one another, such that they exert acompressive force to counteract the forces exerted by growth of theelectrode active material layers 132. According to one embodiment, whena force is exerted on the primary growth constraints 154, 156, dependingon the tensile strength of the primary connecting members 158, theprimary growth constraints 154, 156 can do at least one of: (i)translate away from each other (move apart in the longitudinaldirection); (ii) compress in thickness; and (iii) bend and/or deflectalong the longitudinal direction, to accommodate the force.

The extent of translation of the primary growth constraints 154, 156away from each other may depend on the design of the primary connectingmembers 158, 160. The amount the primary growth constraints 154, 156 cancompress is a function of the primary growth constraint materialproperties, e.g., the compressive strength of the material that formsthe primary growth constraints 154, 156. According to one embodiment,the amount that the primary growth constraints 154, 156 can bend maydepends on the following: (i) the force exerted by the growth of theelectrode structures 110 in the longitudinal direction, (ii) the elasticmodulus of the primary growth constraints 154, 156; (iii) the distancebetween primary connecting members 158, 160 in the vertical direction;and (iv) the thickness (width) of the primary growth constraints 154,156. In one embodiment, a maximum deflection of the primary growthconstraints 154, 156 may occur at the midpoint of the growth constraints154, 156 in a vertical direction between the primary connecting members158, 160. The deflection increases with the fourth power of the distancebetween the primary connecting members 158, 160 along the verticaldirection, decreases linearly with the constraint material modulus, anddecreases with the 3^(rd) power of the primary growth constraintthickness (width). The equation governing the deflection due to bendingof the primary growth constraints 154, 156 can be written as:δ=60wL ⁴ /Eh ³

where w=total distributed load applied on the primary growth constraint154, 156 due to the electrode expansion; L=distance between the primaryconnecting members 158, 160 along the vertical direction; E=elasticmodulus of the primary growth constraints 154, 156, and h=thickness(width) of the primary growth constraints 154, 156.

In one embodiment, the stress on the primary growth constraints 154, 156due to the expansion of the electrode active material 132 can becalculated using the following equation:σ=3wL ²/4h ²

where w=total distributed load applied on the primary growth constraints154, 156 due to the expansion of the electrode active material layers132; L=distance between primary connecting members 158, 160 along thevertical direction; and h=thickness (width) of the primary growthconstraints 154, 156. In one embodiment, the highest stress on theprimary growth constraints 154, 156 is at the point of attachment of theprimary growth constraints 154, 156 to the primary connecting members158, 160. In one embodiment, the stress increases with the square of thedistance between the primary connecting members 158, 160, and decreaseswith the square of the thickness of the primary growth constraints 154,156.

Variables Affecting Primary Connecting Member Design

A number of variables may affect the design of the at least one primaryconnecting member 158, such as the first and second primary connectingmembers 158, 160 as shown in the embodiment depicted in FIG. 8A. In oneembodiment, the primary connecting members 158, 160 may providesufficient resistance to counteract forces that could otherwise resultin the primary growth constraints 154, 156 translating away from eachother (moving apart). In one embodiment, the equation that governs thetensile stress on the primary connecting members 158, 160 can be writtenas follows:σ=PL/2t

where P=pressure applied due to expansion of the electrode activematerial layers 132 on the primary growth constraints; L=distancebetween the primary connecting members 158, 160 along the verticaldirection, and t=thickness of the connecting members 158, 160 in thevertical direction.

Variables Affecting Secondary Growth Constraint Design

A number of variables may affect the design of the first and secondsecondary growth constraints 158, 160, as shown in the embodimentdepicted in FIG. 8B. In one embodiment, the variables affecting thedesign of the secondary growth constraints 158, 160 are similar to thevariables affecting the design of the primary growth constraints 154,156, but translated into the orthogonal direction. For example, in oneembodiment, the equation governing the deflection due to bending of thesecondary growth constraints 158, 160 can be written as:δ=60wy ⁴ /Et ³

where w=total distributed load applied on the secondary growthconstraints 158, 160 due to the expansion of the electrode activematerial layers 132; y=distance between the secondary connecting members166 (such as first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 actingas secondary connecting members 166) in the longitudinal direction;E=elastic modulus of the secondary growth constraints 158, 160, andt=thickness of the secondary growth constraints 158, 160. In anotherembodiment, the stress on the secondary growth constraints 158, 160 canbe written as:σ=3wy ²/4t ²

where w=total distributed load applied on the secondary growthconstraints 158, 160 due to the expansion of the electrode activematerial layers 132; y=distance between the secondary connecting members154, 156 along the longitudinal direction; and t=thickness of thesecondary growth constraints 158, 160.

Variables Affecting Secondary Connecting Member Design

A number of variables may affect the design of the at least onesecondary connecting member 166, such as first and second secondaryconnecting members 154, 156, as shown in the embodiment depicted in FIG.8B. In one embodiment, the tensile stress on secondary connectingmembers 154, 156 can be written similarly to that for the primaryconnecting members 158,160 as follows:σ=Py/2h,

where P=pressure applied due to the expansion of the electrode activematerial layers 132 on the secondary growth constraints 158, 160;y=distance between the connecting members 154, 156 along thelongitudinal direction, and h=thickness of the secondary connectingmembers 154, 156 in the longitudinal direction.

In one embodiment, the at least one connecting member 166 for thesecondary growth constraints 158, 160 are not located at thelongitudinal ends 117, 119 of the electrode assembly 106, but mayinstead be located internally within the electrode assembly 106. Forexample, a portion of the counter electrode structures 112 may act assecondary connecting members 166 that connect the secondary growthconstraints 158, 160 to one another. In such a case where the at leastone secondary connecting member 166 is an internal member, and where theexpansion of the electrode active material layers 132 occurs on eitherside of the secondary connecting member 166, the tensile stress on theinternal secondary connecting members 166 can be calculated as follows:σ=Py/h

where P=pressure applied due to expansion of the electrode activematerial on regions of the secondary growth constraints 158, 160 thatare in between the internal first and second secondary connectingmembers 166 (e.g., counter electrode structures 112 separated from eachother in the longitudinal direction); y=distance between the internalsecondary connecting members 166 along the longitudinal direction, andh=thickness of the internal secondary connecting members 166 in thelongitudinal direction. According to this embodiment, only one half ofthe thickness of the internal secondary connecting member 166 (e.g.,counter-electrode structure 112) contributes towards restraining theexpansion due to the electrode active material on one side, with theother half of the thickness of the internal secondary connecting member166 contributing to the restraining of the expansion due to theelectrode active material on the other side.

EXAMPLES Example 1

The present example demonstrates an example of a method of fabricatingan electrode assembly 106 having the set of constraints 108. FIG. 21 isreferred to herein as an embodiment of the method.

In the example, in Step S1, the anode and cathode backbones 134, 141,respectively, are fabricated. The anodes 110 are then fabricated byforming anodically active material 132, such as a silicon-containingmaterial, on the anode backbones 134, as shown in Step S2. In Step S3,the anode and cathode current collectors 136, 140, respectively, arefabricated. The set of constraints 108 is fabricated, as in Step S4. InStep S5, the material for forming the separators 130 is deposited on thesides of the anode current collectors 136. In Step S6, the cathodicallyactive material 138 is formed by depositing the material between theanode structures 110 and the cathode backbone 141. Finally, in Step S7,the electrode assembly 106 is connected to tabs, packaged, filled withelectrolyte and sealed. According to one embodiment, the fabrication ofthe set of constraints 108 in Step S4 before the separator 130 and/orcathode active material 138 are deposited in Steps S5 and S6 may providefor improved adhesion of the anode structure 110 to the set ofconstraints 108, without excess residue that might otherwise remain ifthe set of constraints 108 were formed after the separator 130 and/orcathodically active material 138 was provided to the electrode assembly106.

The following embodiments are provided to illustrate aspects of thedisclosure, although the embodiments are not intended to be limiting andother aspects and/or embodiments may also be provided.

Embodiment 1. A secondary battery for cycling between a charged and adischarged state, the secondary battery comprising a battery enclosure,an electrode assembly, carrier ions, a non-aqueous liquid electrolytewithin the battery enclosure, and a set of electrode constraints,wherein

the electrode assembly has mutually perpendicular longitudinal,transverse, and vertical axes, a first longitudinal end surface and asecond longitudinal end surface separated from each other in thelongitudinal direction, and a lateral surface surrounding an electrodeassembly longitudinal axis A_(EA) and connecting the first and secondlongitudinal end surfaces, the lateral surface having opposing first andsecond regions on opposite sides of the longitudinal axis and separatedin a first direction that is orthogonal to the longitudinal axis, theelectrode assembly having a maximum width W_(EA) measured in thelongitudinal direction, a maximum length L_(EA) bounded by the lateralsurface and measured in the transverse direction, and a maximum heightH_(EA) bounded by the lateral surface and measured in the verticaldirection, the ratio of each of L_(EA) and W_(EA) to H_(EA) being atleast 2:1, respectively,

the electrode assembly further comprises a population of electrodestructures, a population of counter-electrode structures, and anelectrically insulating microporous separator material electricallyseparating members of the electrode and counter-electrode populations,members of the electrode and counter-electrode structure populationsbeing arranged in an alternating sequence in the longitudinal direction,

each member of the population of electrode structures comprises a layerof an electrode active material and each member of the population ofcounter-electrode structures comprises a layer of a counter-electrodeactive material, wherein the electrode active material has the capacityto accept more than one mole of carrier ion per mole of electrode activematerial when the secondary battery is charged from a discharged stateto a charged state,

the set of electrode constraints comprises a primary constraint systemcomprising first and second primary growth constraints and at least oneprimary connecting member, the first and second primary growthconstraints separated from each other in the longitudinal direction, andthe at least one primary connecting member connecting the first andsecond primary growth constraints, wherein the primary constraint systemrestrains growth of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal directionsuch that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assemblyin the longitudinal direction over 20 consecutive cycles of thesecondary battery is less than 20%,

the set of electrode constraints further comprising a secondaryconstraint system comprising first and second secondary growthconstraints separated in a second direction and connected by at leastone secondary connecting member, wherein the secondary constraint systemat least partially restrains growth of the electrode assembly in thesecond direction upon cycling of the secondary battery, the seconddirection being orthogonal to the longitudinal direction,

the charged state is at least 75% of a rated capacity of the secondarybattery, and the discharged state is less than 25% of the rated capacityof the secondary battery.

Embodiment 2. The secondary battery of Embodiment 1, wherein the primaryconstraint array restrains growth of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter ofthe electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction over 30 consecutivecycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%.

Embodiment 3. The secondary battery of Embodiment 1, wherein the primaryconstraint array restrains growth of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter ofthe electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction over 50 consecutivecycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%.

Embodiment 4. The secondary battery of Embodiment 1, wherein the primaryconstraint array restrains growth of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter ofthe electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction over 80 consecutivecycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%.

Embodiment 5. The secondary battery of Embodiment 1, wherein the primaryconstraint array restrains growth of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction to less than 20% over 100 consecutive cycles ofthe secondary battery.

Embodiment 6. The secondary battery of Embodiment 1, wherein the primaryconstraint array restrains growth of the electrode assembly in thelongitudinal direction such that any increase in the Feret diameter ofthe electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction over 1000consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%.

Embodiment 7. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the primary constraint array restrains growth of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in theFeret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal directionover 10 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 10%.

Embodiment 8. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the primary constraint array restrains growth of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in theFeret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal directionover 20 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 10%.

Embodiment 9. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the primary constraint array restrains growth of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in theFeret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal directionover 30 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 10%.

Embodiment 10. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the primary constraint array restrains growth of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in theFeret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal directionover 50 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 10%.

Embodiment 11. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the primary constraint array restrains growth of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in theFeret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal directionover 80 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 10%.

Embodiment 12. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the primary constraint array restrains growth of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in theFeret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal directionover 100 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 10%.

Embodiment 13. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the primary constraint array restrains growth of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in theFeret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal directionover 5 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%.

Embodiment 14. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the primary constraint array restrains growth of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in theFeret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal directionover 10 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%.

Embodiment 15. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the primary constraint array restrains growth of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in theFeret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal directionover 20 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%.

Embodiment 16. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the primary constraint array restrains growth of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in theFeret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal directionover 30 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%.

Embodiment 17. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the primary constraint array restrains growth of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in theFeret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal directionover 50 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%.

Embodiment 18. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the primary constraint array restrains growth of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in theFeret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal directionover 80 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%.

Embodiment 19. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the primary constraint array restrains growth of the electrodeassembly in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in theFeret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal directionper cycle of the secondary battery is less than 1%.

Embodiment 20. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the secondary growth constraint system restrains growth of theelectrode assembly in the second direction such that any increase in theFeret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction over 20consecutive cycles upon repeated cycling of the secondary battery isless than 20%.

Embodiment 21. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the secondary growth constraint system restrains growth of theelectrode assembly in the second direction such that any increase in theFeret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction over 10consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 10%.

Embodiment 22. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the secondary growth constraint system restrains growth of theelectrode assembly in the second direction such that any increase in theFeret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction over 5consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%.

Embodiment 23. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the secondary growth constraint system restrains growth of theelectrode assembly in the second direction such that any increase in theFeret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction percycle of the secondary battery is less than 1%.

Embodiment 24. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the first primary growth constraint at least partially coversthe first longitudinal end surface of the electrode assembly, and thesecond primary growth constraint at least partially covers the secondlongitudinal end surface of the electrode assembly.

Embodiment 25. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein a surface area of a projection of the electrode assembly in aplane orthogonal to the stacking direction, is smaller than the surfaceareas of projections of the electrode assembly onto other orthogonalplanes.

Embodiment 26. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein a surface area of a projection of an electrode structure in aplane orthogonal to the stacking direction, is larger than the surfaceareas of projections of the electrode structure onto other orthogonalplanes.

Embodiment 27. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein at least a portion of the primary growth constraint system ispre-tensioned to exert a compressive force on at least a portion of theelectrode assembly in the longitudinal direction, prior to cycling ofthe secondary battery between charged and discharged states.

Embodiment 28. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the primary constraint system comprises first and second primaryconnecting members that are separated from each other in the firstdirection and connect the first and second primary growth constraints.

Embodiment 29. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the first primary connecting member is the first secondarygrowth constraint, the second primary connecting member is the secondsecondary growth constraint, and the first primary growth constraint orthe second primary growth constraint is the first secondary connectingmember.

Embodiment 30. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the at least one secondary connecting member comprises a memberthat is interior to longitudinal first and second ends of the electrodeassembly along the longitudinal axis.

Embodiment 31. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the at least one secondary connecting member comprises at leasta portion of one or more of the electrode and counter electrodestructures.

Embodiment 32. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the at least one secondary connecting member comprises a portionof at least one of an electrode backbone structure and acounter-electrode backbone structure.

Embodiment 33. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the at least one secondary connecting member comprises a portionof one or more of an electrode current collector and a counter-electrodecurrent collector.

Embodiment 34. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein at least one of the first and second primary growth constraintsis interior to longitudinal first and second ends of the electrodeassembly along the longitudinal axis.

Embodiment 35. The secondary battery as in any preceding claim, whereinat least one of the first and second primary growth constraintscomprises at least a portion of one or more of the electrode and counterelectrode structures.

Embodiment 36. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein at least one of the first and second primary growth constraintscomprises a portion of at least one of an electrode backbone structureand a counter-electrode backbone structure.

Embodiment 37. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein at least one of the first and second primary growth constraintscomprises a portion of one or more of an electrode current collector anda counter-electrode current collector.

Embodiment 38. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,further comprising a tertiary constraint system comprising first andsecond tertiary growth constraints separated in a third direction andconnected by at least one tertiary connecting member wherein thetertiary constraint system restrains growth of the electrode assembly inthe third direction in charging of the secondary battery from thedischarged state to the charged state, the third direction beingorthogonal to the longitudinal direction and second direction.

Embodiment 39. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the electrode active material is anodically active and thecounter-electrode active material is cathodically active.

Embodiment 40. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein each member of the population of electrode structures comprisesa backbone.

Embodiment 41. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein each member of the population of counter-electrode structurescomprises a backbone.

Embodiment 42. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the secondary constraint system restrains growth of theelectrode assembly in the vertical direction with a restraining force ofgreater than 1000 psi and a skew of less than 0.2 mm/m.

Embodiment 43. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the secondary growth constraint restrains growth of theelectrode assembly in the vertical direction with less than 5%displacement at less than or equal to 10,000 psi and a skew of less than0.2 mm/m.

Embodiment 44. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the secondary growth constraint restrains growth of theelectrode assembly in the vertical direction with less than 3%displacement at less than or equal to 10,000 psi and a skew of less than0.2 mm/m.

Embodiment 45. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the secondary growth constraint restrains growth of theelectrode assembly in the vertical direction with less than 1%displacement at less than or equal to 10,000 psi and a skew of less than0.2 mm/m.

Embodiment 46. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the secondary growth constraint restrains growth of theelectrode assembly in the vertical direction with less than 15%displacement at less than or equal to 10,000 psi and a skew of less than0.2 mm/m after 50 battery cycles.

Embodiment 47. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the secondary growth constraint restrains growth of theelectrode assembly in the vertical direction with less than 5%displacement at less than or equal to 10,000 psi and a skew of less than0.2 mm/m after 150 battery cycles.

Embodiment 48. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein members of the population of counter-electrode structurescomprise a top adjacent to the first secondary growth constraint, abottom adjacent to the second secondary growth constraint, a verticalaxis A_(CES) parallel to and in the vertical direction extending fromthe top to the bottom, a lateral electrode surface surrounding thevertical axis A_(CES) and connecting the top and the bottom, the lateralelectrode surface having opposing first and second regions on oppositesides of the vertical axis and separated in a first direction that isorthogonal to the vertical axis, a length L_(CES), a width W_(CES), anda height H_(CES), the length L_(CES) being bounded by the lateralelectrode surface and measured in the transverse direction, the widthW_(CES) being bounded by the lateral electrode surface and measured inthe longitudinal direction, and the height H_(CES) being measured in thedirection of the vertical axis A_(CES) from the top to the bottom,wherein

the first and second secondary growth constraints each comprise an innersurface and an opposing outer surface, the inner surface and the outersurface of each are substantially co-planar and the distance between theinner surface and the opposing outer surface of each of the first andsecond secondary growth constraints defines a height of each that ismeasured in the vertical direction from the inner surface to the outersurface of each, the inner surfaces of each being affixed to the top andbottom of the population of electrode structures.

Embodiment 49. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the inner surfaces of each of the first and second secondarygrowth constraints comprise a notch, and the population ofcounter-electrode structures height H_(CES) extends into and is affixedwithin the notch, the notch having a depth defined along the verticaldirection of 25% of the first and second secondary growth constraintheights.

Embodiment 50. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the inner surfaces of each of the first and second secondarygrowth constraints comprise a notch, and the population ofcounter-electrode structures height H_(CES) extends into and is affixedwithin the notch, the notch having a depth defined along the verticaldirection of 50% of the first and second secondary growth constraintheights.

Embodiment 51. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the inner surfaces of each of the first and second secondarygrowth constraints comprise a notch, and the population ofcounter-electrode structures height H_(CES) extends into and is affixedwithin the notch, the notch having a depth defined along the verticaldirection of 75% of the first and second secondary growth constraintheights.

Embodiment 52. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the inner surfaces of each of the first and second secondarygrowth constraints comprise a notch, and the population ofcounter-electrode structures height H_(CES) extends into and is affixedwithin the notch, the notch having a depth defined along the verticaldirection of 90% of the first and second secondary growth constraintheights.

Embodiment 53. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein each of the first and second secondary growth constraintscomprise a slot, and the population of counter-electrode structuresheight extends through and is affixed within the slot forming aninterlocking connection between the population of electrode structuresand each of the first and second secondary growth constraints.

Embodiment 54. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein members of the population of electrode structures comprise a topadjacent to the first secondary growth constraint, a bottom adjacent tothe second secondary growth constraint, a vertical axis A_(ES) parallelto and in the vertical direction extending from the top to the bottom, alateral electrode surface surrounding the vertical axis A_(ES) andconnecting the top and the bottom, the lateral electrode surface havingopposing first and second regions on opposite sides of the vertical axisand separated in a first direction that is orthogonal to the verticalaxis, a length L_(ES), a width W_(ES), and a height H_(ES), the lengthL_(ES) being bounded by the lateral electrode surface and measured inthe transverse direction, the width W_(ES) being bounded by the lateralelectrode surface and measured in the longitudinal direction, and theheight H_(ES) being measured in the direction of the vertical axisA_(ES) from the top to the bottom, wherein

the first and second secondary growth constraints each comprise an innersurface and an opposing outer surface, the inner surface and the outersurface of each are substantially co-planar and the distance between theinner surface and the opposing outer surface of each of the first andsecond secondary growth constraints defines a height of each that ismeasured in the vertical direction from the inner surface to the outersurface of each, the inner surfaces of each being affixed to the top andbottom of the population of electrode structures.

Embodiment 55. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the inner surfaces of each of the first and second secondarygrowth constraints comprise a notch, and the population of electrodestructures height H_(ES) extends into and is affixed within the notch,the notch having a depth defined along the vertical direction of 25% ofthe first and second secondary growth constraint heights.

Embodiment 56. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the inner surfaces of each of the first and second secondarygrowth constraints comprise a notch, and the population of electrodestructures height H_(ES) extends into and is affixed within the notch,the notch having a depth defined along the vertical direction of 50% ofthe first and second secondary growth constraint heights.

Embodiment 57. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the inner surfaces of each of the first and second secondarygrowth constraints comprise a notch, and the population of electrodestructures height H_(ES) extends into and is affixed within the notch,the notch having a depth defined along the vertical direction of 75% ofthe first and second secondary growth constraint heights.

Embodiment 58. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the inner surfaces of each of the first and second secondarygrowth constraints comprise a notch, and the population of electrodestructures height H_(ES) extends into and is affixed within the notch,the notch having a depth defined along the vertical direction of 90% ofthe first and second secondary growth constraint heights.

Embodiment 59. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein each of the first and second secondary growth constraintscomprise a slot, and the population of electrode structures heightextends through and is affixed within the slot forming an interlockingconnection between the population of electrode structures and each ofthe first and second secondary growth constraints.

Embodiment 60. A secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the set of electrode constraints further comprising a fusedsecondary constraint system comprising first and second secondary growthconstraints separated in a second direction and fused with at least onefirst secondary connecting member.

Embodiment 61. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein members of the population of counter-electrode structurescomprise a top adjacent to the first secondary growth constraint, abottom adjacent to the second secondary growth constraint, a verticalaxis A_(CES) parallel to and in the vertical direction extending fromthe top to the bottom, a lateral electrode surface surrounding thevertical axis A_(CES) and connecting the top and the bottom, the lateralelectrode surface having opposing first and second regions on oppositesides of the vertical axis and separated in a first direction that isorthogonal to the vertical axis, a length L_(CES), a width W_(CES), anda height H_(CES), the length L_(CES) being bounded by the lateralelectrode surface and measured in the transverse direction, the widthW_(CES) being bounded by the lateral electrode surface and measured inthe longitudinal direction, and the height H_(CES) being measured in thedirection of the vertical axis A_(CES) from the top to the bottom,wherein

the first and second secondary growth constraints each comprise an innersurface and an opposing outer surface, the inner surface and the outersurface of each are substantially co-planar and the distance between theinner surface and the opposing outer surface of each of the first andsecond secondary growth constraints defines a height of each that ismeasured in the vertical direction from the inner surface to the outersurface of each, the inner surfaces of each being fused to the top andbottom of the population of counter-electrode structures.

Embodiment 62. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein members of the population of electrode structures comprise a topadjacent to the first secondary growth constraint, a bottom adjacent tothe second secondary growth constraint, a vertical axis A_(ES) parallelto and in the vertical direction extending from the top to the bottom, alateral electrode surface surrounding the vertical axis A_(ES) andconnecting the top and the bottom, the lateral electrode surface havingopposing first and second regions on opposite sides of the vertical axisand separated in a first direction that is orthogonal to the verticalaxis, a length L_(ES), a width W_(ES), and a height H_(ES), the lengthL_(ES) being bounded by the lateral electrode surface and measured inthe transverse direction, the width W_(ES) being bounded by the lateralelectrode surface and measured in the longitudinal direction, and theheight H_(ES) being measured in the direction of the vertical axisA_(ES) from the top to the bottom, wherein

the first and second secondary growth constraints each comprise an innersurface and an opposing outer surface, the inner surface and the outersurface of each are substantially co-planar and the distance between theinner surface and the opposing outer surface of each of the first andsecond secondary growth constraints defines a height of each that ismeasured in the vertical direction from the inner surface to the outersurface of each, the inner surfaces of each being fused to the top andbottom of the population of electrode structures.

Embodiment 63. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein at least one of an electrode structure and counter-electrodestructure comprise a top adjacent to the first secondary growthconstraint, a bottom adjacent to the second secondary growth constraint,a vertical axis A_(ES) parallel to and in the vertical directionextending from top to bottom, a lateral electrode surface surroundingthe vertical axis and connecting top and bottom, the lateral electrodesurface having a width W_(ES) bounded by the lateral surface andmeasured in the longitudinal direction, wherein

the width W_(ES) tapers from a first width adjacent the top to a secondwidth that is smaller than the first width at a region along thevertical axis between the top and bottom.

Embodiment 64. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodiment,wherein the at least one secondary connecting member corresponds to atleast one of the first and second primary growth constraints at thelongitudinal ends of the electrode assembly.

Embodiment 65. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the electrically insulating microporous separator materialcomprises a particulate material and a binder, has a void fraction of atleast 20 vol. %, and is permeated by the non-aqueous liquid electrolyte.

Embodiment 66. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the carrier ions are selected from the group consisting oflithium, potassium, sodium, calcium, and magnesium.

Embodiment 67. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the non-aqueous liquid electrolyte comprises a lithium saltdissolved in an organic solvent.

Embodiment 68. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the first and second secondary growth constraints each comprisea thickness that is less than 50% of the electrode or counter-electrodeheight.

Embodiment 69. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the first and second secondary growth constraints each comprisea thickness that is less than 20% of the electrode or counter-electrodeheight.

Embodiment 70. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the first and second secondary growth constraints each comprisea thickness that is less than 10% of the electrode or counter-electrodeheight.

Embodiment 71. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the set of electrode constraints inhibits expansion of theelectrode active material layers in the vertical direction uponinsertion of the carrier ions into the electrode active material asmeasured by scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

Embodiment 72. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the first and second primary growth constraints impose anaverage compressive force to each of the first and second longitudinalends of at least 0.7 kPa, averaged over the surface area of the firstand second longitudinal ends, respectively.

Embodiment 73. The secondary battery as in any preceding Embodimentwherein the first and second primary growth constraints impose anaverage compressive force to each of the first and second longitudinalends of at least 1.75 kPa, averaged over the surface area of the firstand second longitudinal ends, respectively.

Embodiment 74. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment whereinthe first and second primary growth constraints imposes an averagecompressive force to each of the first and second longitudinal ends ofat least 2.8 kPa, averaged over the surface area of the first and secondlongitudinal ends, respectively.

Embodiment 75. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment whereinthe first and second primary growth constraints imposes an averagecompressive force to each of the first and second longitudinal ends ofat least 3.5 kPa, averaged over the surface area of the first and secondlongitudinal ends, respectively.

Embodiment 76. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment whereinthe first and second primary growth constraints imposes an averagecompressive force to each of the first and second longitudinal ends ofat least 5.25 kPa, averaged over the surface area of the first andsecond longitudinal ends, respectively.

Embodiment 77. The secondary battery according to any precedingEmbodiment wherein the first and second primary growth constraintsimposes an average compressive force to each of the first and secondlongitudinal ends of at least 7 kPa, averaged over the surface area ofthe first and second longitudinal ends, respectively.

Embodiment 78. The secondary battery according to any precedingEmbodiment wherein the first and second primary growth constraintsimposes an average compressive force to each of the first and secondlongitudinal ends of at least 8.75 kPa, averaged over the surface areaof the first and second projected longitudinal ends, respectively.

Embodiment 79. The secondary battery according to any precedingEmbodiment wherein the first and second primary growth constraintsimposes an average compressive force to each of the first and secondlongitudinal ends of at least 10 kPa, averaged over the surface area ofthe first and second longitudinal ends, respectively.

Embodiment 80. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment whereinthe surface area of the first and second longitudinal end surfaces isless than 25% of the surface area of the electrode assembly.

Embodiment 81. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment whereinthe surface area of the first and second longitudinal end surfaces isless than 20% of the surface area of the electrode assembly.

Embodiment 82. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment whereinthe surface area of the first and second longitudinal end surfaces isless than 15% of the surface area of the electrode assembly.

Embodiment 83. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment whereinthe surface area of the first and second longitudinal end surfaces isless than 10% of the surface area of the electrode assembly.

Embodiment 84. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment whereinthe constraint and enclosure have a combined volume that is less than60% of the volume enclosed by the battery enclosure.

Embodiment 85. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment whereinthe constraint and enclosure have a combined volume that is less than45% of the volume enclosed by the battery enclosure.

Embodiment 86. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment whereinthe constraint and enclosure have a combined volume that is less than30% of the volume enclosed by the battery enclosure.

Embodiment 87. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment whereinthe constraint and enclosure have a combined volume that is less than20% of the volume enclosed by the battery enclosure.

Embodiment 88. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment whereinthe first and second longitudinal end surfaces are under a compressiveload when the secondary battery is charged to at least 80% of its ratedcapacity.

Embodiment 89. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment whereinthe secondary battery comprises a set of electrode assemblies, the setcomprising at least two electrode assemblies.

Embodiment 90. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment claimwherein the electrode assembly comprises at least 5 electrode structuresand at least 5 counter-electrode structures.

Embodiment 91. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment whereinthe electrode assembly comprises at least 10 electrode structures and atleast 10 counter-electrode structures.

Embodiment 92. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment whereinthe electrode assembly comprises at least 50 electrode structures and atleast 50 counter-electrode structures.

Embodiment 93. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment whereinthe electrode assembly comprises at least 100 electrode structures andat least 100 counter-electrode structures.

Embodiment 94. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment whereinthe electrode assembly comprises at least 500 electrode structures andat least 500 counter-electrode structures.

Embodiment 95. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment whereinat least one of the primary and secondary constraint systems comprises amaterial having an ultimate tensile strength of at least 10,000 psi (>70MPa).

Embodiment 96. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment whereinat least one of the primary and secondary constraint systems comprises amaterial that is compatible with the battery electrolyte.

Embodiment 97. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment whereinat least one of the primary and secondary constraint systems comprises amaterial that does not significantly corrode at the floating or anodepotential for the battery.

Embodiment 98. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment whereinat least one of the primary and secondary constraint systems comprises amaterial that does not significantly react or lose mechanical strengthat 45° C.

Embodiment 99. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment whereinat least one of the primary and secondary constraint systems comprises amaterial that does not significantly react or lose mechanical strengthat 70° C.

Embodiment 100. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodimentwherein at least one of the primary and secondary constraint systemscomprises metal, metal alloy, ceramic, glass, plastic, or a combinationthereof.

Embodiment 101. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodimentwherein at least one of the primary and secondary constraint systemscomprises a sheet of material having a thickness in the range of about10 to about 100 micrometers.

Embodiment 102. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodimentwherein at least one of the primary and secondary constraint systemscomprises a sheet of material having a thickness in the range of about30 to about 75 micrometers.

Embodiment 103. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodimentwherein at least one of the primary and secondary constraint systemscomprises carbon fibers at >50% packing density.

Embodiment 104. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodimentwherein the first and second primary growth constraints exert a pressureon the first and second longitudinal end surfaces that exceeds thepressure maintained on the electrode assembly in each of two directionsthat are mutually perpendicular and perpendicular to the stackingdirection by factor of at least 3.

Embodiment 105. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodimentwherein the first and second primary growth constraints exert a pressureon the first and second longitudinal end surfaces that exceeds thepressure maintained on the electrode assembly in each of two directionsthat are mutually perpendicular and perpendicular to the stackingdirection by factor of at least 3.

Embodiment 106. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodimentwherein the first and second primary growth constraints exert a pressureon the first and second longitudinal end surfaces that exceeds thepressure maintained on the electrode assembly in each of two directionsthat are mutually perpendicular and perpendicular to the stackingdirection by factor of at least 4.

Embodiment 107. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodimentwherein the first and second primary growth constraints exert a pressureon the first and second longitudinal end surfaces that exceeds thepressure maintained on the electrode assembly in each of two directionsthat are mutually perpendicular and perpendicular to the stackingdirection by factor of at least 5.

Embodiment 108. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment,wherein portions of the set of electrode constraints that are externalto the electrode assembly occupy no more than 80% of the total combinedvolume of the electrode assembly and the external portions of theelectrode constraints.

Embodiment 109. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment,wherein portions of the primary growth constraint system that areexternal to the electrode assembly occupy no more than 40% of the totalcombined volume of the electrode assembly and external portions of theprimary growth constraint system.

Embodiment 110. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment,wherein portions of the secondary growth constraint system that areexternal to the electrode assembly occupy no more than 40% of the totalcombined volume of the electrode assembly and external portions of thesecondary growth constraint system

Embodiment 111. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment,wherein a projection of the members of the electrode population and thecounter-electrode populations onto the first longitudinal end surfacecircumscribes a first projected area, and a projection of the members ofthe electrode population and the counter-electrode populations onto thesecond longitudinal end surface circumscribes a second projected area,and wherein the first and second projected areas each comprise at least50% of the surface area of the first and second longitudinal endsurfaces, respectively.

Embodiment 112. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment,wherein the first and second primary growth constraints deflect uponrepeated cycling of the secondary battery between charged and dischargedstates according to the following formula:δ=60wL ⁴ /Eh ³,

wherein w is total distributed load applied to the first and secondprimary growth constraints upon repeated cycling of the secondarybattery between charged and discharged states, L is the distance betweenfirst and second primary connecting members in the vertical direction, Eis the elastic modulus of the first and second primary growthconstraints, and h is the thickness of the first and second primarygrowth constraints.

Embodiment 113. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment,wherein the stress on the first and second primary growth constraintsupon repeated cycling of the secondary battery between charged anddischarged states is as follows:σ=3wL ²/4h ²

wherein w is total distributed load applied on the first and secondprimary growth constraints upon repeated cycling of the secondarybattery between charged and discharged states, L is the distance betweenfirst and second primary connecting members in the vertical direction,and h is the thickness of the first and second primary growthconstraints.

Embodiment 114. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment,wherein the tensile stress on the first and second primary connectingmembers is as follows:σ=PL/2t

wherein P is pressure applied due to the first and second primary growthconstraints upon repeated cycling of the secondary battery betweencharged and discharged states, L is the distance between the first andsecond primary connecting members along the vertical direction, and t isthe thickness of the first and second primary connecting members in thevertical direction.

Embodiment 115. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment,wherein the first and second secondary growth constraints deflect uponrepeated cycling of the secondary battery between charged and dischargedstates according to the following formulaδ=60wy ⁴ /Et ³,

wherein w is the total distributed load applied on the first and secondsecondary growth constraints upon repeated cycling of the secondarybattery between charged and discharged states, y is the distance betweenthe first and second secondary connecting members in the longitudinaldirection, E is the elastic modulus of the first and second secondarygrowth constraints, and t is the thickness of the first and secondsecondary growth constraints.

Embodiment 116. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment,wherein the stress on the first and second secondary growth constraintsis as follows:σ=3wy ²/4t ²

wherein w is the total distributed load applied on the first and secondsecondary growth constraints upon repeated cycling of the secondarybattery between charged and discharged states, y is the distance betweenthe first and second secondary connecting members along the longitudinaldirection, and t is the thickness of the first and second secondarygrowth constraints.

Embodiment 117. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment,wherein the tensile stress on the first and second secondary connectingmembers is as follows:σ=Py/2h,

wherein P is the pressure applied on the first and second secondarygrowth constraints upon repeated cycling of the secondary battery, y isthe distance between the first and second secondary connecting membersalong the longitudinal direction, and h is the thickness of the firstand second secondary connecting members in the longitudinal direction.

Embodiment 118. The secondary battery of any preceding Embodiment,wherein the tensile stress on internal secondary connecting members isas follows:σ=Py/h

wherein P is the pressure applied to the first and second secondarygrowth constraints upon cycling of the of the secondary battery betweencharged and discharge states, due to expansion of the electrode activematerial on regions that are in between internal first and secondsecondary connecting members, y is the distance between the internalfirst and second secondary connecting members along the longitudinaldirection, and h is the thickness of the internal first and secondsecondary connecting members in the longitudinal direction.

Embodiment 119. A secondary battery for cycling between a charged and adischarged state, the secondary battery comprising a battery enclosure,an electrode assembly, carrier ions, a non-aqueous liquid electrolytewithin the battery enclosure, and a set of electrode constraints,wherein

the electrode assembly has mutually perpendicular longitudinal,transverse, and vertical axes, a first longitudinal end surface and asecond longitudinal end surface separated from each other in thelongitudinal direction, and a lateral surface surrounding an electrodeassembly longitudinal axis A_(EA) and connecting the first and secondlongitudinal end surfaces, the lateral surface having opposing first andsecond regions on opposite sides of the longitudinal axis and separatedin a first direction that is orthogonal to the longitudinal axis, theelectrode assembly having a maximum width W_(EA) measured in thelongitudinal direction, a maximum length L_(EA) bounded by the lateralsurface and measured in the transverse direction, and a maximum heightH_(EA) bounded by the lateral surface and measured in the verticaldirection, the ratio of each of L_(EA) and W_(EA) to H_(EA) being atleast 2:1, respectively,

the electrode assembly further comprises a population of electrodestructures, a population of counter-electrode structures, and anelectrically insulating microporous separator material electricallyseparating members of the electrode and counter-electrode populations,members of the electrode and counter-electrode structure populationsbeing arranged in an alternating sequence in the longitudinal direction,

each member of the population of electrode structures comprises a layerof an electrode active material and each member of the population ofcounter-electrode structures comprises a layer of a counter-electrodeactive material, wherein the electrode active material has the capacityto accept more than one mole of carrier ion per mole of electrode activematerial when the secondary battery is charged from a discharged stateto a charged state,

the set of electrode constraints comprises a primary constraint systemcomprising first and second primary growth constraints and at least oneprimary connecting member, the first and second primary growthconstraints separated from each other in the longitudinal direction, andthe at least one primary connecting member connecting the first andsecond primary growth constraints, wherein the primary constraint arrayrestrains growth of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal directionsuch that any increase in the Feret diameter of the electrode assemblyin the longitudinal direction over 20 consecutive cycles of thesecondary battery is less than 20%,

the charged state is at least 75% of a rated capacity of the secondarybattery, and the discharged state is less than 25% of the rated capacityof the secondary battery.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

All publications and patents mentioned herein, including those itemslisted below, are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety forall purposes as if each individual publication or patent wasspecifically and individually incorporated by reference. In case ofconflict, the present application, including any definitions herein,will control.

EQUIVALENTS

While specific embodiments have been discussed, the above specificationis illustrative, and not restrictive. Many variations will becomeapparent to those skilled in the art upon review of this specification.The full scope of the embodiments should be determined by reference tothe claims, along with their full scope of equivalents, and thespecification, along with such variations.

Unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities ofingredients, reaction conditions, and so forth used in the specificationand claims are to be understood as being modified in all instances bythe term “about.” Accordingly, unless indicated to the contrary, thenumerical parameters set forth in this specification and attached claimsare approximations that may vary depending upon the desired propertiessought to be obtained.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of manufacturing a structure comprising an electrode assembly, carrier ions, and a constraint system, the method comprising forming the electrode assembly, the electrode assembly having mutually perpendicular longitudinal, transverse, and vertical axes, a first longitudinal end surface and a second longitudinal end surface separated from each other in the longitudinal direction, and a lateral surface surrounding an electrode assembly longitudinal axis A_(EA) and connecting the first and second longitudinal end surfaces, the lateral surface having opposing first and second regions on opposite sides of the longitudinal axis and separated in a first direction that is orthogonal to the longitudinal axis, the electrode assembly having a maximum width W_(EA) measured in the longitudinal direction, a maximum length L_(EA) bounded by the lateral surface and measured in the transverse direction, and a maximum height H_(EA) bounded by the lateral surface and measured in the vertical direction, the ratio of each of L_(EA) and W_(EA) to H_(EA) being at least 2:1, respectively, the electrode assembly comprising a population of electrode structures, a population of counter-electrode structures, and an electrically insulating separator material electrically separating members of the electrode and counter-electrode populations, with members of the electrode and counter-electrode structure populations being arranged in an alternating sequence in the longitudinal direction, constraining the electrode assembly with the constraint system, the constraint system comprising first and second primary growth constraints separated from each other in the longitudinal direction, the first and second primary growth constraints being placed in tension with one another via connection through first and second primary connecting members, the first and second primary connecting members being separated from each other in the vertical direction, and connecting one or more of (i) member(s) of the population of electrode structures, or (ii) member(s) of population of counter-electrode structures to the first and second primary connecting members.
 2. The method according to claim 1, comprising connecting both member(s) of the population of electrode structures and member(s) of population of counter-electrode structures to the first and second primary connecting members.
 3. The method according to claim 1, comprising connecting member(s) of the population of electrode structures to the first and second primary connecting members.
 4. The method according to claim 1, comprising forming an electrode assembly in which members of the population of electrode structures comprise an electrode current collector, and comprising connecting the first and second primary connecting members to the electrode current collectors of the members of the population of electrode structures.
 5. The method according to claim 1, comprising forming an electrode assembly in which members of the population of counter-electrode structures comprise a counter-electrode current collector, and comprising connecting the first and second primary connecting members to the counter-electrode current collectors of the members of the population of counter-electrode structures.
 6. The method according to claim 1, wherein the constraint system comprises first and second secondary growth constraints separated in a second direction and being placed in tension with one another via connection through first and second secondary connecting members.
 7. The method according to claim 6, wherein the first and second secondary growth constraints correspond to the first and second primary connecting members, and the first and second secondary connecting members correspond to any of (i) the first and second primary growth constraints, (ii) the member(s) of the population of electrode structures, or (ii) the member(s) of population of counter-electrode structures to the first and second primary connecting members.
 8. The method according to claim 1, wherein at least a portion of the constraint system comprises any of stainless steel, aluminum, titanium, beryllium copper, copper, nickel, alumina, zirconia, yttria-stabilized zirconia, Schott D263 tempered glass, polyetheretherketone (PEEK), PEEK with carbon, polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) with carbon, polyetheretherketone (PEEK) with 30% glass, polyimide, E Glass Std Fabric/Epoxy, 0 deg, E Glass UD/Epoxy, 0 deg, Kevlar Std Fabric/Epoxy, 0 deg, Kevlar UD/Epoxy, 0 deg, Carbon Std Fabric/Epoxy, 0 deg, Carbon UD/Epoxy, 0 deg, Toyobo Zylon® HM Fiber/Epoxy, Kevlar 49 Aramid Fiber, S Glass Fibers, Carbon Fibers, Vectran UM LCP Fibers, Dyneema, and Zylon, or combinations thereof.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the electrode assembly comprises at least 10 electrode structures and at least 10 counter-electrode structures.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the electrode assembly comprises at least 50 electrode structures and at least 50 counter-electrode structures.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein at least a portion of the constraint system comprises a sheet of material having a thickness in the range of about 10 to about 100 micrometers.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein at least a portion of the constraint system comprises a sheet of material having a thickness in the range of about 30 to about 75 micrometers.
 13. The method of claim 1, comprising constraining the electrode assembly such that the first and second primary growth constraints exert a pressure on the first and second longitudinal end surfaces that exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly in each of two directions that are mutually perpendicular and perpendicular to the stacking direction.
 14. The method of claim 1, comprising constraining the electrode assembly such that the first and second primary growth constraints exert a pressure on the first and second longitudinal end surfaces that exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly in each of two directions that are mutually perpendicular and perpendicular to the stacking direction by a factor of at least
 2. 15. The method of claim 1, comprising constraining the electrode assembly such that the first and second primary growth constraints exert a pressure on the first and second longitudinal end surfaces that exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly in each of two directions that are mutually perpendicular and perpendicular to the stacking direction by a factor of at least
 3. 16. The method of claim 1, wherein the structure is a secondary battery further comprising a battery enclosure.
 17. The method of claim 16, comprising hermetically sealing the electrode assembly and constraint system within the battery enclosure.
 18. The method of claim 16, comprising filling the battery enclosure with non-aqueous liquid electrolyte.
 19. The method of claim 1, wherein the carrier ions are selected from the group consisting of lithium, potassium, sodium, calcium, and magnesium.
 20. The method of claim 19, wherein the carrier ions comprise lithium ions.
 21. The method of claim 1, comprising forming an electrode assembly wherein each member of the population of electrode structures comprises a layer of an electrode active material and each member of the population of counter-electrode structures comprises a layer of a counter-electrode active material, and wherein the electrode active material has the capacity to accept more than one mole of carrier ion per mole of electrode active material when the structure is provided as a part of a secondary battery that is charged from a discharged state to a charged state.
 22. The method of claim 1, comprising forming an electrode assembly wherein each member of the population of electrode structures comprises a layer of an electrode active material and each member of the population of counter-electrode structures comprises a layer of a counter-electrode active material, and wherein the electrode active material comprises an anodically active material selected from the group consisting of metals, alloys, oxides and compounds capable of forming an alloy with lithium.
 23. The method of claim 22, wherein the electrode active material comprises an anodically active material selected from the group consisting of aluminum, tin, silicon, an oxide thereof, a nitride thereof, a fluoride thereof, or other alloy thereof.
 24. The method of claim 22, wherein the electrode active material comprises one or more of graphite, silicon, and an oxide thereof.
 25. The method of claim 22, wherein the electrode active material comprises graphite.
 26. The method of claim 22, wherein the electrode active material comprise silicon.
 27. The method of claim 1, wherein members of the population of electrode structures comprising electrode current collectors, and members of the population of counter-electrode structures comprising counter-electrode current collectors, and wherein the first and second primary connecting members are affixed to (i) the electrode current collectors of the members of the population of electrode structures, and/or (ii) the counter-electrode current collectors of the members of the population of counter-electrode structures, by any one or more of adhering, gluing, welding, bonding, soldering, sintering, press contacting, brazing, thermal spraying joining, clamping, wire bonding, ribbon bonding, ultrasonic bonding, ultrasonic welding, resistance welding, laser beam welding, electron beam welding, induction welding, cold welding, plasma spraying, flame spraying, and arc spraying.
 28. The method of claim 27, wherein the electrode current collectors and/or counter-electrode current collectors are under tension.
 29. The method of claim 1, wherein the first and second primary connecting members each comprise a thickness that is less than 20% of a height of members of the electrode or counter-electrode structure population.
 30. The method of claim 1, wherein the surface area of the first and second longitudinal end surfaces is less than 15% of the surface area of the electrode assembly.
 31. The method of claim 1, wherein a surface area of a projection of the electrode assembly in a plane orthogonal to the longitudinal direction, is smaller than the surface areas of projections of the electrode assembly onto other orthogonal planes.
 32. The method of claim 1, wherein the electrically insulating separator material comprises a microporous separator material comprising a particulate material and a binder, and has a void fraction of at least 20 vol. %.
 33. The method of claim 1, comprising connecting the first and second primary connecting members to top and bottom ends of (i) member(s) of the population of electrode structures, or (ii) member(s) of population of counter-electrode structures to the first and second primary connecting members.
 34. The method of claim 21, wherein the counter-electrode active material comprises a cathodically active material comprising a cathode material selected from transition metal oxides, transition metal sulfides, transition metal nitrides, lithium-transition metal oxides, lithium-transition metal sulfides, and lithium-transition metal nitrides.
 35. The method of claim 34, wherein the transition metal elements of these transition metal oxides, transition metal sulfides, and transition metal nitrides can include metal elements having a d-shell or f-shell.
 36. The method of claim 35, wherein the transition metal element are selected from the group consisting of Sc, Y, lanthanoids, actinoids, Ti, Zr, Hf, V, Nb, Ta, Cr, Mo, W, Mn, Tc, Re, Fe, Ru, Os, Co, Rh, Ir, Ni, Pb, Pt, Cu, Ag, and Au.
 37. The method of claim 34, wherein the cathodically active material is selected from the group consisting of LiCoO₂, LiNi_(0.5)Mn_(1.5)O₄, Li(Ni_(x)Co_(y)Al₂)O₂, LiFePO₄, Li₂MnO₄, V₂O₅, molybdenum oxysulfides, phosphates, silicates, vanadates and combinations thereof.
 38. The method of claim 4, wherein the electrode current collector comprises a metal selected from the group consisting of aluminum, carbon, chromium, gold, nickel, NiP, palladium, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, an alloy of silicon and gold, an alloy of silicon and nickel, titanium, or a combination thereof.
 39. The method of claim 5, wherein the counter-electrode current collector comprises a metal selected from the group consisting of aluminum, carbon, chromium, gold, nickel, NiP, palladium, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, an alloy of silicon and gold, an alloy of silicon and nickel, titanium, or a combination thereof.
 40. The method of claim 1, wherein the constraint system comprises a material having an ultimate tensile strength of at least 10,000 psi (>70 MPa).
 41. A structure manufactured according to the method of claim 1, the structure comprising the electrode assembly, carrier ions, and constraint system.
 42. A method of manufacturing a secondary battery comprising a battery enclosure, an electrode assembly, carrier ions, and a constraint system, the method comprising forming the electrode assembly, the electrode assembly having mutually perpendicular longitudinal, transverse, and vertical axes, a first longitudinal end surface and a second longitudinal end surface separated from each other in the longitudinal direction, and a lateral surface surrounding an electrode assembly longitudinal axis A_(EA) and connecting the first and second longitudinal end surfaces, the lateral surface having opposing first and second regions on opposite sides of the longitudinal axis and separated in a first direction that is orthogonal to the longitudinal axis, the electrode assembly having a maximum width W_(EA) measured in the longitudinal direction, a maximum length L_(EA) bounded by the lateral surface and measured in the transverse direction, and a maximum height H_(EA) bounded by the lateral surface and measured in the vertical direction, the ratio of each of L_(EA) and W_(EA) to H_(EA) being at least 2:1, respectively, the electrode assembly comprising a population of electrode structures, a population of counter-electrode structures, and an electrically insulating separator material electrically separating members of the electrode and counter-electrode populations, with members of the electrode and counter-electrode structure populations being arranged in an alternating sequence in the longitudinal direction, and constraining the electrode assembly with the constraint system, the constraint system comprising first and second primary growth constraints separated from each other in the longitudinal direction, the first and second primary growth constraints being placed in tension with one another via connection through first and second primary connecting members, the first and second primary connecting members being separated from each other in the vertical direction, and connecting one or more of (i) member(s) of the population of electrode structures, or (ii) member(s) of population of counter-electrode structures to the first and second primary connecting members.
 43. The method of claim 42, comprising filling the battery enclosure with non-aqueous liquid electrolyte.
 44. The method according to claim 42, comprising connecting both member(s) of the population of electrode structures and member(s) of population of counter-electrode structures to the first and second primary connecting members.
 45. The method according to claim 42, comprising connecting member(s) of the population of electrode structures to the first and second primary connecting members.
 46. The method according to claim 42, comprising forming an electrode assembly in which members of the population of electrode structures comprise an electrode current collector, and comprising connecting the first and second primary connecting members to the electrode current collectors of the members of the population of electrode structures.
 47. The method according to claim 42, comprising forming an electrode assembly in which members of the population of counter-electrode structures comprise a counter-electrode current collector, and comprising connecting the first and second primary connecting members to the counter-electrode current collectors of the members of the population of counter-electrode structures.
 48. The method according to claim 42, wherein the constraint system comprises first and second secondary growth constraints separated in a second direction and being placed in tension with one another via connection through first and second secondary connecting members.
 49. The method according to claim 48, wherein the first and second secondary growth constraints correspond to the first and second primary connecting members, and the first and second secondary connecting members correspond to any of (i) the first and second primary growth constraints, (ii) the member(s) of the population of electrode structures, or (ii) the member(s) of population of counter-electrode structures to the first and second primary connecting members.
 50. The method according to claim 42, wherein at least a portion of the constraint system comprises any of stainless steel, aluminum, titanium, beryllium copper, copper, nickel, alumina, zirconia, yttria-stabilized zirconia, Schott D263 tempered glass, polyetheretherketone (PEEK), PEEK with carbon, polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) with carbon, polyetheretherketone (PEEK) with 30% glass, polyimide, E Glass Std Fabric/Epoxy, 0 deg, E Glass UD/Epoxy, 0 deg, Kevlar Std Fabric/Epoxy, 0 deg, Kevlar UD/Epoxy, 0 deg, Carbon Std Fabric/Epoxy, 0 deg, Carbon UD/Epoxy, 0 deg, Toyobo Zylon® HM Fiber/Epoxy, Kevlar 49 Aramid Fiber, S Glass Fibers, Carbon Fibers, Vectran UM LCP Fibers, Dyneema, and Zylon, or combinations thereof.
 51. The method of claim 42, wherein the electrode assembly comprises at least 10 electrode structures and at least 10 counter-electrode structures.
 52. The method of claim 42, wherein the electrode assembly comprises at least 50 electrode structures and at least 50 counter-electrode structures.
 53. The method of claim 42, wherein at least a portion of the constraint system comprises a sheet of material having a thickness in the range of about 10 to about 100 micrometers.
 54. The method of claim 42, wherein at least a portion of the constraint system comprises a sheet of material having a thickness in the range of about 30 to about 75 micrometers.
 55. The method of claim 42, comprising constraining the electrode assembly such that the first and second primary growth constraints exert a pressure on the first and second longitudinal end surfaces that exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly in each of two directions that are mutually perpendicular and perpendicular to the stacking direction.
 56. The method of claim 42, comprising constraining the electrode assembly such that the first and second primary growth constraints exert a pressure on the first and second longitudinal end surfaces that exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly in each of two directions that are mutually perpendicular and perpendicular to the stacking direction by a factor of at least
 2. 57. The method of claim 42, comprising constraining the electrode assembly such that the first and second primary growth constraints exert a pressure on the first and second longitudinal end surfaces that exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly in each of two directions that are mutually perpendicular and perpendicular to the stacking direction by a factor of at least
 3. 58. The method of claim 42, wherein the carrier ions are selected from the group consisting of lithium, potassium, sodium, calcium, and magnesium.
 59. The method of claim 58, wherein the carrier ions comprise lithium ions.
 60. The method of claim 42, comprising forming an electrode assembly wherein each member of the population of electrode structures comprises a layer of an electrode active material and each member of the population of counter-electrode structures comprises a layer of a counter-electrode active material, and wherein the electrode active material comprises an anodically active material selected from the group consisting of metals, alloys, oxides and compounds capable of forming an alloy with lithium.
 61. The method of claim 60, wherein the electrode active material comprises an anodically active material selected from the group consisting of aluminum, tin, silicon, an oxide thereof, a nitride thereof, a fluoride thereof, or other alloy thereof.
 62. The method of claim 46, wherein the electrode current collectors are under tension.
 63. The method of claim 42, wherein the first and second primary connecting members each comprise a thickness that is less than 20% of a height of members of the electrode or counter-electrode structure population.
 64. The method of claim 42, wherein the surface area of the first and second longitudinal end surfaces is less than 15% of the surface area of the electrode assembly.
 65. The method of claim 42, wherein the constraint system comprises a material having an ultimate tensile strength of at least 10,000 psi (>70 MPa).
 66. A secondary battery manufactured according to the method of claim 42, the secondary battery comprising the battery enclosure, electrode assembly, carrier ions, and constraint system.
 67. The secondary battery of claim 66, further comprising a non-aqueous liquid electrolyte within the battery enclosure. 